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SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING
BY
CARLOTTA C. GREER HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT, EAST TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL CLEVELAND, OHIO
PREFACE
_School and Home Cooking_ is a text which can be placed in the hands
of the pupils and used by them as a guide both in the school and home. Its
use eliminates note-taking (which in reality is dictation) and thus saves
much time.
The _psychological_ method of education, which treats first of
material within the experience of the beginner and with that as a basis
develops new material to meet the needs of the pupil, was kept in mind in
preparing this text. Although the grouping of foods rich in each foodstuff
may be considered a logical arrangement, the method of arrangement of the
content of each division and the method of approach of each lesson is
psychological. The manipulative processes and kinds of dishes are
sufficiently varied to arouse and sustain the interest of a pupil.
Experience with pupils in the classroom shows that their interest in any
subject cannot be awakened by using a list or classification involving
technical terms in introducing the subject. For this reason a
classification of the foodstuffs is not placed at the beginning of the
text; they are classified after each is considered.
At the close of each division of the text there is placed a group of
lessons called _Related Work_, which includes table service lessons,
home projects, and meal cooking. _Table service_ lessons are
introduced in this way to emphasize the fact that a complete meal should
be prepared before all types of foods are studied and manipulative
processes are performed. The _cost_ and _food value_ of meals
are considered in conjunction with their preparation. Wise
_selection_ and thrifty _buying_ of foods are also treated in
these lessons.
_Home projects_ which progressive teachers have found effective in
making home economics function in the home--one of the goals to be
attained in democratic education--contain suggestive material which may
be adapted to the particular needs of the pupils in their homes.
An adaptation of the "meal method," _i.e., meal cooking_, is used
both for the purpose of reviewing processes of cooking, and also for
gaining skill and speed in the preparation of several foods at the same
time.
_Experiments_ regarding food preparation and composition and
processes of digestion are found in this book. Special care has been taken
to state these experiments in terms within the understanding of the pupil
and to intersperse definite questions so that a pupil can follow
directions, make observations, and draw helpful deductions.
The _recipes_ have been adapted from various sources. Where it is
possible, without a sacrifice of flavor or food value, the least expensive
food materials are used. The more expensive materials are used as
sparingly as possible. Definite and practical methods of preparing foods
follow the list of ingredients. The recipes have proved satisfactory in
the home kitchen.
Special thanks are due to Mrs. Mary Swartz Rose, Assistant Professor of
Nutrition, Teachers College, Columbia University, for criticizing portions
of the text regarding dietetics; to Miss S. Gertrude Hadlow, Head of the
Department of English, Longwood High School of Commerce, Cleveland, for
valuable suggestions of material formerly prepared which aided in the
preparation of this work; to Mrs. Jessie M. Osgood for painstaking reading
of the manuscript; and to the following for the use of illustrative
material: The Macmillan Company, D. Appleton and Company, William Wood and
Company, _The Journal of the American Medical Association, The Journal
of Home Economics_, and the United States Department of Agriculture.
CLEVELAND, July, 1920.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
FOREWORD
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
I. Baked Apples--Dishwashing
II. Measurements--Stuffed and Scalloped Tomatoes
III. Fuels and Combustion--Sauted and Baked Squash
IV. Coal Ranges--Corn Dishes
V. Gas Ranges--Scalloped Fruit
VI. Stoves and Heating Devices--Stuffed Peppers, Butterscotch Apples
DIVISION TWO
BODY-REGULATING FOOD--WATER
VII. Water and Beverages (A)
VIII. Water and Beverages (B)
RELATED WORK
IX. Home Projects
X. Afternoon Tea
DIVISION THREE
BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS,--RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)
XI. Fresh Vegetables (A)
XII. Fresh Vegetables (B)
XIII. Fresh Fruits
RELATED WORK
LESSON
XIV. Review: Meal Cooking
XV. Home Projects
DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
XVI. Sugar: Digestion of Sugar
XVII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (A)
XVIII. Sugar-rich Fruits: Dried Fruits (B)
XIX. Cereals: Starch and Cellulose
XX. Cereals: Rice (A)
XXI. Cereals: Rice (B)
XXII. Cereals and the Fireless Cooker
XXIII. Cereals for Frying or Baking
XXIV. Powdered Cereals Used for Thickening
XXV. Toast: Digestion of Starch
XXVI. Root Vegetables (A)
XXVII. Root Vegetables (B)
XXVIII. Root Vegetables (C)
XXIX. Starchy Foods Cooked at High Temperature
RELATED WORK
XXX. Dining Room Service
XXXI. Cooking and Serving Breakfast
XXXII. Review: Meal Cooking
XXXIII. Home Projects
DIVISION FIVE
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AN OILS
XXXIV. Fat as a Frying Medium
XXXV. Fat as a Frying Medium--Food Fats
XXXVI. Fat as a Frying Medium--Digestion of Fat
XXXVII. Fat Saving
RELATED WORK
XXXVIII. Dining Room Courtesy
XXXIX. Cooking and Serving Breakfast
XL. Review: Meal Cooking
XLI. Home Projects
DIVISION SIX
ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN
XLII. Eggs
XLIII. Eggs: Digestion of Protein
XLIV. Eggs: Omelets (A)
XLV. Eggs: Omelets (B)
XLVI. Milk
XLVII. Milk with Cocoa and Chocolate
XLVIII. Milk and Cream
XLIX. Cream Soups (A)
L. Cream Soups (B)
LI. Milk Thickened with Egg (A)
LII. Milk Thickened with Egg (B)
LIII. Milk Thickened with Egg (C)
LIV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (A)
LV. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (B)
LVI. Milk Thickened with Egg and Starchy Materials (C)
LVII. Cheese (A)
LVIII. Cheese (B)
LIX. Structure of Beef--Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts
LX. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (A)
LXI. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tender Cuts (Applied to Chopped Beef) (B)
LXIL. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (A)
LXIII. Beef; Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (B)
LXIV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (C)
LXV. Beef: Methods of Cooking Tough Cuts (D)
LXVI. Beef: Uses of Cooked Beef
LXVII. Gelatine (A)
LXVIIL. Gelatine (B)
LXIX. Fish (A)
LXX. Fish (B)
LXXI. Fish (C)
LXXII. Legumes (A)
LXXIII. Legumes (B)
LXXIV. Legumes (C)
RELATED WORK
LXXV. Cost of Food
LXXVI. Cooking and Serving a Breakfast
LXXVII. Review: Meal Cooking
LXXVIII. Home Projects
DIVISION SEVEN
HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES
LXXIX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Delicate Flavor
LXXX. Vitamines--Vegetables of Strong Flavor
LXXXI. Salads (A)
LXXXII. Salads (B)
LXXXIII. Classification of Foodstuffs
RELATED WORK
LXXXIV. Selecting Food
LXXXV. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper
LXXXVL. Review: Meal Cooking
LXXXVII. Home Projects
DIVISION EIGHT
FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS
LXXXVIII. Food Adjuncts--Dishes Containing Food Adjuncts
RELATED WORK
LXXXIX. Spending for Food
XC. Cooking and Serving a Luncheon or Supper
XCI. Review: Meal Cooking
XCII. Home Projects
DIVISION NINE
FOOD COMBINATIONS
XCIII. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (A)
XCIV. Vegetables with Salad Dressing (B)
XCV. Fish Salad and Salad Rolls
XCVI. Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws
XCVII. Veal and Potatoes
XCVIII. Mutton and Lamb Dishes
XCIX. Pork, Vegetables, and Apple Sauce
C. Chicken and Rice
CI. Chicken and Peas
CII. Oyster Dishes
CIII. Meat-substitute Dishes
CIV. Meat Extenders and One-dish Meals
RELATED WORK
CV. Menu-making
CVI. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Luncheon or Supper
CVII. Review: Meal Cooking
CVIII. Home Projects
DIVISION TEN
QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS
CIX. Leavening with Steam and Air: Popovers
CX. Leavening with Baking Soda and Sour Milk: Spider Corn Bread
CXI. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Molasses: Gingerbread
CXII. Leavening with Baking Powder: Griddle Cakes
CXIII. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Baking Powder: Sour Milk
Griddle Cakes
CXIV. Leavening with Baking Soda, Sour Milk, and Cream of Tartar: Steamed
Brown Breads
CXV. Formulating Recipes--Waffles
RELATED WORK
CXVI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Foods
CXVII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner
CXVIII. Review: Meal Cooking
CXIX. Home Projects
DIVISION ELEVEN
QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS
CXX. Fine and Coarse Flours--Muffins
CXXI. Comparison of Wheat and Other Grains--Muffins
CXXII. Baking Powder Loaf Breads
CXXIII. Eggs for Quick Breads--Cream Puffs
RELATED WORK
CXXIV. Food Requirement
CXXV. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner
CXXVI. Review: Meal Cooking
CXXVII. Home Projects
DIVISION TWELVE
QUICK BREADS: SOFT DOUGHS
CXXVIII. Method of Mixing Fat in Quick Breads--Drop Biscuit
CXXIX. Quantity of Fat in Quick Breads--Short Cake
CXXX. "Cut" Biscuit
RELATED WORK
CXXXI. Measurement of the Fuel Value of Food Applied to the Daily Food
Requirement.
CXXXII. Planning, Cooking, and Serving a Dinner.
CXXXIII. Review: Meal Cooking.
CXXXIV. Home Projects.
DIVISION THIRTEEN
YEAST BREADS: STIFF DOUGHS
CXXXV. Yeast--Loaf Bread.
CXXXVI. Wheat Flour--Bread Sponge.
CXXXVII. Modifications of Plain White Bread.
CXXXVIII. Rolls and Buns.
RELATED WORK
CXXXIX. Food for Girls and Boys.
CXL. Planning a Day's Diet--Cooking and Serving a Meal.
CXLI. Review: Meal Cooking.
CXLII. Home Projects.
DIVISION FOURTEEN
CAKE
CXLIII. Cake without Fat--Sponge Cake.
CXLIV. Cake Containing Fat--One-egg Cake.
CXLV. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (A)
CXLVI. Cake Containing Fat--Plain Cake and Its Modifications (B)
CXLVII. Cake Containing Fat--Cookies
CXLVIII. Cakes without Eggs
RELATED WORK
CXLIX. The Luncheon Box
CL. Planning and Preparing Box Luncheons
CLI. Review--Meal Cooking
CLII. Home Projects
DIVISION FIFTEEN
PASTRY
CLIII. Pies with Under Crust
CLIV. Pies with Upper Crust
CLV. Two-crust Pies
RELATED WORK
CLVI. Infant Feeding
CLVII. Modifying Milk
CLVIII. Review--Meal Cooking
CLIX. Home Projects
DIVISION SIXTEEN
FROZEN DESSERTS
CLX. Method of Freezing--Water Ice
CLXI. Frozen Creams
RELATED WORK
CLXII. Diet for Young Children
CLXIII. Planning and Preparing Menus for Children
CLXIV. Review--Meal Cooking
CLXV. Home Projects
DIVISION SEVENTEEN
FOOD PRESERVATION
CLXVI. The Principles of Preserving Food
CLXVII. Processing with Little or No Sugar--Canned Fruit
CLXVIII. Processing with Much Sugar--Preserves, Jams, and Conserves
CLXIX. Processing with Much Sugar--Jellies
CLXX. Processing with Vinegar and Spices--Relishes
CLXXI. Canned Vegetables
CLXXII. Dried Vegetables
RELATED WORK
CLXXIII. The Sick-room Tray
CLXXIV. Preparing Trays for the Sick and Convalescent
CLXXV. Review--Meal Cooking
CLXXVI. Home Projects
DIVISION EIGHTEEN
SUPPLEMENTARY
I. Thanksgiving Sauce
II. Thanksgiving Desserts
III. Christmas Sweets
IV. Christmas Candy
APPENDIX
Suggestions for Teaching
Books for Reference
INDEX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
A corner in Washington's kitchen at Mt. Vernon [_Frontispiece_]
1. Skewer and knitting needle for testing foods
2. A sink arranged for efficiency in dish-washing
3. Utensils for dish-washing
4. Dish-drainer
5. Dish-drainer
6. Dish-rack
7. Dish-rack
8. A rack for drying dishes
9. Utensils for measuring and weighing foods
10. Coal range, showing course of direct draft
11. Coal range, showing course of indirect draft
12. Gas burner, showing mixer
13. Gas burners
14. Gas range, showing direction of draft
15. Cross-section of wickless kerosene stove
16. Electric range
17. Pressure cooker
18. Steam cooker, containing various foods
19. Scene on a tea plantation
20. Tea-ball teapot
21. Coffee berries
22. Coffee percolator
23. Grains of starch
24. A cupful of rice before and after boiling
25. Insulated wall of a refrigerator
26. Fireless cooker, having excelsior packing
27. Fireless cooker, with stone disks
28. Electric fireless cooker
29. Gas range, having fireless cooker attachment, insulated oven and hoods
30. Method of folding filter paper
31. Utensil for steaming,--a "steamer"
32. "Steam" without pressure, and "steam" which has been under pressure
33. Table laid for an informal luncheon
34. Wheel tray
35. How to hold the knife and fork
36. Keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth
37. The teaspoon should rest on the saucer
38. How to hold the soup spoon
39. Apparatus to determine the temperature at which eggs coagulate
40. Method of holding pan to turn an omelet on to a platter
41. Cocoa pods
42. Dried bread crumbs
43. Structure of meat
44. Club or Delmonico steak
45. Porterhouse
46. Sirloin,--hip steak
47. Sirloin,--flat bone
48. Sirloin,--round bone
49. First cut prime rib roast
50. Second cut prime rib roast
51. Blade rib roast
52. Chuck rib roast
53. Colonial fireplace, showing a "roasting kitchen"
54. Round
55. Chuck
56. Cuts of beef
57. Rump
58. Cross rib, Boston cut, or English cut
59. Skirt steak; flank steak
60. Fish kettle, showing rack
61. A suggestion for the division of each dollar spent for food
62. The composition of roots and succulent vegetables
63. The composition of butter and other fat-yielding foods
64. The composition of milk and milk products
65. Cuts of veal
66. Cuts of lamb or mutton
67. Lamb chops
68. The composition of fresh and cured meats
69. Cuts of pork
70. The composition of fresh and dried fruits
71. Removing tendons from the leg of a fowl
72. Fowl trussed for roasting,--breast view
73. Fowl trussed for roasting,--back view
74. Composition of fish, fish products, and oysters
75. The composition of eggs and cheese
76. The composition of legumes and corn
77. The composition of bread and other cereal foods
78. Foods containing calcium
79. Foods containing phosphorus
80. Foods containing iron
81. Oven heat regulator
82. Illustrating the amount of heat represented by one Calorie
83. Comparative weights of 100-Calorie portions of food
84. 100-Calorie portions of food
85. Longitudinal section of wheat grain, showing bran, floury part, and
germ
86. Growing yeast plants
87. Graduated measure and dipper for measuring the ingredients of modified
milk
88. Some species of molds
89. The four types of bacteria
90. Canning foods
91. Rack for holding jars
92. The composition of fruits and fruit products
93. Drier for vegetables or fruits
94. The composition of sugar and similar foods
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Measurement equivalents.
2. Use of the wooden spoon.
3. Lack of draft.
4. Presence of draft.
5. The regulation and purpose of a gas mixer.
6. The dissolving power of water.
7. Presence of gases in water. 8. Simmering and boiling of water.
9. Tannin in tea.
10. The solubility of granulated sugar in cold water.
11. The solubility of granulated sugar in hot water.
12. The solubility of powdered sugar.
13. The solubility of caramel.
14. The starch test.
15. The effect of cold water on starch.
16. The effect of heat on starch.
17. Stiffening of cooked starch.
18. The structure of starch.
19. Separation of cellulose and starch.
20. The difference in the nutritive value of boiled rice and rice cooked
over boiling water.
21. Retention of heat.
22. Starch grains and boiling water.
23. Separation of starch grains with cold water.
24. Separation of starch grains with sugar.
25. Separation of starch grains with fat.
26. The change of starch into dextrin.
27. The solubility of dextrin.
28. Starch in cracker.
29. Action of saliva upon starch.
30. The effect of soaking starchy vegetables in water.
31. Temperature at which fats and oils decompose or "burn".
32. Bread fried in "cool" fat.
33. The temperature of fat for frying
34. Saponification of fat
35. Action of oil and water
36. Emulsion of fat
37. The coagulation of egg-white
38. The solubility of albumin
39. Temperature at which eggs coagulate
40. Comparison of cooked and boiled eggs
41. Effect of beating a whole egg
42. Comparison of eggs beaten with a Dover egg beater and with a wire
spoon
43. Effect of beating egg yolk and white separately
44. Separation of milk into foodstuffs
45. Scalding milk
46. Comparison of the conducting power of metal and earthenware
47. Effect of rennet on milk
48. Separation of curd and whey
49. Effect of acid on milk
50. Division of muscle
51. Effect of dry heat on (_a_) connective tissue, (_b_) muscle
fiber
52. Effect of moisture and heat on (_a_) connective tissue,
(_b_) muscle fiber
53. Comparison of starch and dextrin for thickening
54. Effect of cold water on meat
55. Effect of boiling water on meat
56. Effect of salt on meat
57. Effect of cold water on gelatine
58. Effect of hot water on gelatine
59. Effect of soaking fish in water
60. Effect of boiling fish rapidly
61. Effect of acid on milk
62. Neutralization of acid by means of soda
63. Protein in oyster liquor
64. Leavening with steam and air
65. Comparison of thick and thin quick breads
66. Preparation of flour for quick breads
67. Action of baking soda on sour milk
68. Chemical change
69. Quantity of baking soda to use with sour milk
70. Action of baking soda on molasses.
71. Quantity of baking soda to use with molasses.
72. Effect of cold water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.
73. Effect of hot water on a mixture of cream of tartar and baking soda.
74. Effect of hot water on baking powder.
75. Starch in baking powder.
76. Comparison of the time of action of different types of baking powders.
77. Conditions for growth of the yeast plant.
78. Protein in flour.
79. Mixtures for freezing.
80. Effect of air, light, and drying upon the growth of molds.
81. Effect of moisture and light upon the growth of molds.
82. Effect of moisture and darkness upon the growth of molds.
83. Effect of moisture and low temperature upon the growth of molds.
84. Growth of molds on cut fruit.
85. Growth of molds upon whole fruits.
86. Growth of molds on other foods.
87. Growth of molds upon wood.
88. Growth of molds upon cloth.
89. Contamination of fresh food by means of moldy food.
90. Growth of bacteria.
91. Effect of boiling upon the growth of bacteria.
92. Effect of preservatives on the growth of bacteria.
93. Use of sugar as a preservative.
94. Pectin in fruit juice.
95. Pectin in the inner portion of orange and lemon peel.
[Illustration: BLEST BE THE FEAST WITH SIMPLE PLENTY CROWNED]
FOREWORD
One of the slogans of the World War,--"Food will win the War,"--showed
that food was much more important than many persons had believed. It
confirmed the fact that food was not merely something that tastes good, or
relieves the sensation of hunger, but that it was a vital factor in
achieving one of the noblest ideals of all time.
The subject of food is a broad one,--one that is growing in interest. Many
present-day scientists are finding a lifework in food study. "Tell me what
you eat and I will tell you what you are," was spoken many years ago. The
most recent work in science confirms the fact that the kind of food an
individual eats has much to do with his health and his ability to work. If
you would be well, strong, happy, and full of vim choose your food
carefully.
A study of food means a knowledge of many things. Before purchasing foods
one should know what foods to _select_ at market, whence they come,
how they are prepared for market, by what means they are transported, and
how they are taken care of in the market. There is a great variety of
foods in the present-day market; some are rich in nutrients; others
contain little nourishment, yet are high in price. It has been said that
for food most persons spend the largest part of their incomes; it is a
pity if they buy sickness instead of health. Whether foods are purchased
at the lunch counter or at market, it is necessary to know what foods to
choose to meet best the needs of the body.
Meal planning is an important factor of food study. The matter of
_combining_ foods that are varied in composition or that supplement
one another in nutritious properties deserves much consideration. Not only
nutriment but flavor enters into food combination. It is most important to
combine foods that "taste well."
In learning to _prepare_ foods, the experience of those who have
cooked foods successfully is most helpful. Hence the pupil is told to
follow directions for cooking a type of food or to use a recipe. Following
a direction or recipe in a mechanical way, however, does not result in
rapid progress. Keen observation and mental alertness are needed if you
would become skilful in food preparation.
One class of food or one principle of cooking may be _related_ to
another or _associated_ with another. For example, the method of
cooking a typical breakfast cereal may be applied to cereals in general.
There may be some exceptions to the rule, but when the basic principle of
cooking is kept in mind, the variations can be readily made. If a pupil
has learned to prepare Creamed Potatoes she should be able to apply the
principle to the cooking of Potato Soup. In making chocolate beverage, the
pupil learns to blend chocolate with other ingredients. The knowledge
gained in making chocolate beverage should be applied to the flavoring of
a cake or of a dessert with chocolate. In all the thousands of recipes
appearing in cook books, only a few principles of cooking are involved.
The pupil who appreciates this fact becomes a much more resourceful worker
and acquires skill in a much shorter time.
The _results_ of every process should be observed. Careful
observations should be made when work is not successful. There is no such
thing as "good luck" in cooking. There is a cause for every failure. The
cause of the failure should be found and the remedy ascertained. The same
mistake should never be made a second time. Progress is sure to result
from such an attitude towards work. Moreover, confidence in the result of
one's work is gained. This is of incalculable value, besides being a great
satisfaction, to the home-keeper.
A dining table with carefully laid covers is always inviting. Graceful
_serving_ of food at such a table is an art. The ability to serve
food in an attractive way is an accomplishment that no girl should fail to
acquire.
Considerations regarding success in learning to cook may be summed up as
follows:
(_a_) Know what foods to select from the standpoint of economy,
nutriment, and flavor.
(_b_) Observe and think when working. Relate or associate one class
of foods with another and one principle of cooking with another.
(_c_) Note the results of your work; know why the results are
successful or why they are unsuccessful.
Food selection, food combination, and food preparation are all important
factors of good cooking. It is to be hoped that the pupil will realize
that the study of food and cooking means the ability not only to boil,
broil, and bake, but to select, combine, use, and serve food properly. All
this demands much earnest thought and effort.
SCHOOL AND HOME COOKING
DIVISION ONE
INTRODUCTION
LESSON I
BAKED APPLES--DISH-WASHING
BAKED APPLES (Stuffed with Raisins)
6 apples
Seeded raisins
6 tablespoonfuls brown sugar
6 tablespoonfuls water
Wash the apples; with an apple corer or paring knife, remove the core from
each. Place the apples in a granite, earthenware, or glass baking-dish.
Wash a few raisins and place 6 of them and I level tablespoonful of sugar
in each core. Pour the water around the apples.
Bake in a hot oven until tender. Test the apples for sufficient baking
with a fork, skewer, or knitting needle (see Figure 1). During baking,
occasionally "baste" the apples, _i.e._ take spoonfuls of the water
from around the apples and pour it on the top of them. The time for baking
apples varies with the kind of apple and the temperature of the oven. From
20 to 40 minutes at 400 degrees F. is usually required.
DISH-WASHING AND EFFICIENCY.--There is almost invariably a waste of effort
in both the washing and the drying of dishes. This may be due to:
(_a_) Poorly arranged dish-washing equipments.
(_b_) Inadequate utensils for dish-washing.
(_c_) Lack of forethought in preparing the dishes for washing and too
many motions in washing and drying them.
Since dish-washing is one of the constant duties of housekeeping,
efficiency methods, _i.e._ methods which accomplish satisfactory
results with the fewest motions and in the least time, should be applied
to it. The washing of dishes, invariably considered commonplace, may
become an interesting problem if it is made a matter of motion study.
[Illustration: FIGURE 1.--SKEWER AND KNITTING NEEDLE FOR TESTING FOODS.
Note that the knitting needle has one end thrust into a cork, which serves
as a handle.]
For thorough and rapid dish-washing, the following equipment is desirable:
A sink placed at a height that admits of an erect position while washing
dishes, [Footnote 1: In case it is necessary for one to wash dishes at a
sink which is placed too low, the dish-pan may be raised by placing it on
an inverted pan or on a sink-rack, which may be purchased for this
purpose.] and equipped with two draining boards, one on each side of the
sink, or with one draining board on the left side; dish and draining pans;
dish-drainer (see Figures 4 and 5); dish-rack (see Figures 6 and 7); dish-
mop (see Figure 3); wire dish-cloth or pot-scraper (see Figure 3); dish-
cloths (not rags); dish-towels; rack for drying cloths and towels; soap-
holder (see Figure 3) or can of powdered soap; can of scouring soap and a
large cork for scouring; tissue paper or newspapers cut in convenient size
for use; scrubbing-brush; bottle-brush (see Figure 3); rack made of slats
for drying brushes (see Figure 2).
PREPARING DISHES FOR WASHING.--If possible, as soon as _serving dishes,
i.e._ dishes used at the dining table, are soiled, scrape away bits of
food from them. The scraping may be done with: (_a_) a piece of soft
paper, (_b_) plate-scraper (see Figure 3), (_c_) a knife or
spoon. The latter is doubtless the most commonly used for dish scraping,
but it is less efficient and may scratch china. If it is impossible to
wash dishes soon after soiling, let them soak in water until they can be
washed.
[Illustration: FIGURE 2.--A SINK ARRANGED FOR EFFICIENCY IN DISH-WASHING.
Note the draining board on each side of the sink, the dish-cupboard in the
upper left corner, and the rack for drying brushes below the sink.]
_Cooking utensils_ need special care before washing, especially if
they have held greasy foods. "Oil and water do not mix!" The grease from
dish-water often collects in the drain-pipe and prevents or retards the
drainage of waste water. This often means expensive plumber's bills and
great inconvenience. Bear in mind the following cautions Before putting a
utensil which has held fat into the dish-water, always wipe it carefully
with a piece of paper. After wiping most of the grease from a pan or
kettle, the remaining fat can be entirely removed by filling the utensil
with hot water and then adding washing-soda. Boil the solution a few
minutes. Fat and washing-soda react and form soap; hence the effectiveness
of this method (See Experiment 34) (This method should not be applied to
aluminum utensils; washing-soda or any alkaline substance makes a dark
stain on aluminum)
[Illustration: FIGURE 3--UTENSILS FOR DISH WASHING
A, soap-holder, B, C bottle-brushes, D, dish-mop, E F, wire dish-cloths G
plate scraper]
Utensils used in cooking can generally be washed with greater efficiency
if they are soaked before washing. Fill each dish or pan with water, using
cold water for all utensils which have held milk, cream, eggs, flour, or
starch, and hot water for all dishes having contained sugar or sirup.
ARRANGING DISHES.--Arrange dishes and all the requisite dish-washing
utensils in convenient order for washing, placing all of one kind of
dishes together. Also place the dishes to be washed at the _right_ of
the dish-pan. Wash them and place the washed dishes at the _left_ of
the pan. A dish-washer invariably holds a dish that is being washed in her
left hand and the dish-cloth or mop in her right hand. That there may be
no unnecessary motions, the dishes should be placed to drain after washing
at the left of the dish-pan. In this way there is no crossing of the left
hand over the right arm as there would be if the washed dishes were placed
at the right of the dish-pan. A cupboard located above the draining board
at the left makes the storing of dishes an efficient process (see Figure
2).
WASHING AND SCOURING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--Fill the dish-pan about two
thirds full of hot water. "Soap" the water before placing the dishes in
the pan; use soap-powder, a soap-holder, or a bar of soap. If the latter
is used, do not allow it to remain in the water. Fill another pan about
two thirds full of hot water for rinsing the dishes. A wire basket may be
placed in the rinsing pan.
Place the dishes, a few at a time, in the dish-pan. Wash the cleanest
dishes first, usually in the following order: glasses, silverware, cups,
saucers, plates, large dishes, platters, cooking utensils, then the soap-
dish and dish-pan. In washing decorated china, use soap sparingly. Do not
wash glassware in very hot water. Use slices of potato, finely torn bits
of blotting paper, or egg shells to clean the inside of water bottles or
vinegar cruets. Wooden-handled utensils or the cogs of the Dover egg
beater should not soak in water.
If the cogs of the egg beater are soiled, wipe them with a damp cloth.
Change the dish-water occasionally, not allowing it to become cold or
greasy.
[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--DISH-DRAINER.]
Wash steel knives and forks and place them without rinsing on a tin pan to
scour. With a cork apply powdered bath brick or other scouring material to
the steel. Again wash the scoured utensils, rinse, and dry. If there are
any stains on tin, iron, or enamel ware, remove with scouring soap. Apply
the latter with a cork, or wring out the dish-cloth as dry as possible,
rub scouring soap on it, and apply to the utensils. Scrub meat, pastry or
bread boards, wooden rolling pins, and wooden table tops with cold water
and scouring soap. Then rinse and wipe the scoured wood with a cloth which
is free from grease. If it is not necessary to scrub meat, pastry, or
bread boards on both sides, they should be rinsed on the clean side to
prevent warping.
[Illustration: FIGURE 5.--DISH-DRAINER.]
RINSING AND DRAINING DISHES.--Place the washed dishes in wire baskets (see
Figures 4 and 5) or in dish-racks (see Figures 6, 7, and 8). If the former
has been placed in the rinsing pan, the basket may be lifted out of the
water to drain the dishes. In case the washed dishes are placed in dish-
racks, rinse them by pouring hot water over them and let them drain again.
[Illustration: FIGURE 6--DISH-RACK.]
DRYING DISHES AND UTENSILS.--If such dishes as plates, platters, and
saucers are placed upright to drain and are rinsed with very hot water, no
towel-drying is required. Glassware and silver should be dried with a soft
towel. Towels made from flour sacks or from glass toweling are good for
this purpose.
Coarser towels may be used to dry cooking utensils. To prevent rusting,
dry tin, iron, and steel utensils most thoroughly. After using a towel on
these wares it is well to place them on the back of the range or in the
warming oven. Woodenware should be allowed to dry thoroughly in the open
air. Stand boards on end until dry.
[Illustration: FIGURE 7.--DISH-RACK.]
CARE OF DISH-TOWELS AND CLOTHS.--Use dish-towels and cloths for no other
purpose than washing and drying dishes. It is a matter of much importance
to keep dish-towels and cloths clean. To clean the towels and cloths soak
them in cold water. Then wash in hot soapy water and rinse them well.
Wring, stretch, and hang to dry on a rack, or preferably in the sun. At
least once a week boil the towels. First soak, wash, and rinse them as
directed above. Then place them in cold water and heat the water until it
boils. Wring, stretch, and hang to dry.
[Illustration: From Home Furnishing, by Alice M Kellogg FIGURE 8.--A RACK
FOR DRYING DISHES.]
CARE OF THE SINK.--If the sink is of porcelain or enamel, it may be
cleaned with soap, but not with scouring soap or powder. The latter wears
away the smooth finish, makes it slightly rough and hence more difficult
to clean. Before applying soap to a sink, wring out the cloth used in
cleaning it as dry as possible and then with the hand push any water
standing in the sink down the drainpipe. Then apply soap to the cloth and
wash the sink. _Do not let the water run from the faucet while cleaning
the sink._ If the dirt and grease on a sink do not yield to soap, apply
a small quantity of kerosene. After cleaning, rinse the sink by opening
the hot-water faucet, letting a generous supply of water flow down the
drain-pipe so as to rinse the trap.
The drain-pipe and trap of a sink need special cleaning occasionally. This
is often done by pouring a solution of washing-soda down the drain. If
this is used, special care should be taken to rinse the drain with much
hot water. As previously explained, grease and washing-soda form soap. If
the latter is allowed to remain in the trap, it may harden and stop the
drain-pipe. Because of the formation of soap and the possible stoppage of
the drain-pipe when washing-soda is used, kerosene is advised. To use
this, first flush the drain with about half a gallon of hot water.
Immediately pour in one half cupful of kerosene. Let the kerosene remain
in the trap for at least 5 minutes. Then rinse with another half gallon of
water. Kerosene emulsifies grease and makes it easy to rinse away.
SUGGESTIONS FOR PERSONAL NEATNESS IN THE SCHOOL KITCHEN AND AT HOME.--For
both comfort and cleanliness a washable gown should be worn in the kitchen
or the gown should be well covered by an apron. It is advisable to cover
the hair with a hair net or cap. Rings are an inconvenience when worn in
the kitchen. The hands should be washed _before_ preparing or cooking
food, and _after_ touching the hair or handkerchief. It is desirable
to have a hand towel conveniently placed.
_Clean cooking_ means _clean tasting_. This can be done by
taking some of the food with the cooking spoon and then pouring it from
the cooking spoon into a teaspoon. Taste from the teaspoon.
QUESTIONS
Are apples sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or peck?
What is the price per pound or per peck of apples?
Why should dishes which have held milk, cream, egg, flour, or starch be
rinsed with _cold_ water?
Why should dishes having contained sugar or sirup be soaked in _hot_
water?
Why should greasy dishes and utensils be wiped with paper and then rinsed
with hot water before washing?
Why should not a bar of soap "soak" in dish-water?
Why not _fill_ the dish-pan with soiled dishes?
Why should glass be washed in warm (not hot) water?
Why should not wooden-handled utensils and the cogs of the Dover egg
beater "soak" in dish-water? Why should glass and silver be wiped with a
soft towel?
Why should tin, iron, and steel utensils be dried most thoroughly?
Why should woodenware be allowed to dry in the open air? (See Experiment
87.)
Why should dish-towels be placed in boiling water during laundering?
Why should scouring soap or powder not be used in cleaning a porcelain or
enamel sink?
What is the purpose of wringing out dry a sink-cloth and letting no water
run from the faucet while cleaning a sink?
LESSON II
MEASUREMENTS--STUFFED AND SCALLOPED TOMATOES
EXPERIMENT 1: [Footnote 2: The pupil should record each experiment in a
notebook in a methodical way, giving (_a_) the aim of the experiment,
(_b_) the process, (_c_) the result, and (_d_) the
conclusion or practical application.] MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS.--In
measuring solid materials with teaspoon, tablespoon, or standard measuring
cup (see Figure 9), fill the measuring utensil with the material and then
"level" it with a knife.
Use both water and flour or sugar for the following measurements:
(_a_) Find the number of teaspoonfuls in one tablespoonful
(_b_) Find the number of tablespoonfuls in one cup
(_c_) Find the number of cupfuls in one pint
Half a spoonful is obtained by dividing through the middle lengthwise
A quarter of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a half crosswise
[Illustration: FIGURE 9--UTENSILS FOR MEASURING AND WEIGHING FOODS]
An eighth of a spoonful is obtained by dividing a quarter diagonally
A third of a spoonful is obtained by dividing twice crosswise
A set of measuring spoons (see Figure 9) is most convenient for measuring
fractional teaspoonfuls
NEED OF ACCURACY--When learning to cook, it is necessary to measure all
ingredients with exactness. Experienced cooks can measure some ingredients
for certain purposes quite satisfactorily "by eye". The result is
satisfactory, however, only when the cook has established her own
standards of measurements by much practice. Even then many housewives are
not _sure_ of success. For certain foods the ingredients should
always be measured accurately, no matter how skilful the cook. As far as
possible, the exact quantity of a recipe is given in this text. When the
quantity of an ingredient is too small for practical measurement, merely
the name of the ingredient is given and no definite quantity indicated.
When large quantities of materials are to be measured, a quart measure on
which the pint and half pint quantities are indicated usually proves more
convenient than a measuring cup. Many foods, especially fats, are more
conveniently weighed than measured. Kitchen scales are a useful equipment
for cooking (see Figure 9).
The amateur should, however, train her eye to approximate measurements.
She should learn to estimate the size of saucepans and other cooking
utensils, and also of serving dishes. Measure by cupfuls the capacity of
several utensils in constant use and thus establish a few standards of
measurement.
Also it is well to be on the alert to learn the proper quantity of food to
buy at market, and the proper quantity of food to cook for a stated number
of persons. She would make a sad failure who would prepare just enough
rice to serve four persons when six were to be seated at the table. She
might be able to cook the cereal well and to tell many interesting facts
concerning its growth, composition, and preparation, yet for the lack of a
little homely knowledge the meal would be disappointing. A thrifty
housekeeper would not buy enough lettuce or spinach for ten people when
there were only six to be served. In the school kitchen always note the
quantity of the materials used, and then observe the quantity of the
finished product.
EXPERIMENT 2: USE OF THE WOODEN SPOON.--Place a tin and a wooden spoon in
a saucepan of boiling water. After the water has boiled for at least 5
minutes grasp the handles of the spoons. Which is the hotter? Which would
be the more comfortable to use when stirring hot foods? What kind of
spoon--tin or wood--should be used for acid foods? Why? (See
_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)
Explain why it is that the handles of teakettles, knobs on covers for
saucepans, etc., are of wood.
STUFFED TOMATOES
6 ripe tomatoes
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
3/4 teaspoonful mixed herbs
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Wash the tomatoes, remove a slice from the tops, and take out most of the
seed portion. Add the seasoning to the bread crumbs, melt the fat, then
add the seasoned bread crumbs to the fat. Fill the tomatoes with the
prepared crumbs, place them in an oiled baking-pan, and bake slowly (about
20 minutes) until the tomatoes are soft but not broken, and the crumbs
brown. Test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer (see Figure 1)
rather than with a fork.
For mixed herbs use equal parts of marjoram, savory, and thyme.
_Soft bread crumbs_ are prepared from stale bread, _i.e._ bread
that has been out of the oven for at least twenty-four hours.
Vegetables, such as corn and canned peas, may be used instead of bread
crumbs to stuff tomatoes. Use salt, pepper, and butter with these
vegetables.
Use a granite, glass, or earthenware utensil for cooking tomatoes. (See
_Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.)
SCALLOPED TOMATOES [Footnote 3: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Recipes for both
fresh and canned vegetables are given so that a selection depending upon
the season can be made.]
1 can or 1 quart tomatoes
1 tablespoonful salt
Dash pepper
3 cupfuls bread crumbs
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
If fresh tomatoes are used, plunge them into boiling water, then drain and
peel and cut into pieces.
Mix the salt and pepper with the tomatoes and pour into a buttered baking-
dish. Cover with buttered crumbs (see Stuffed Tomatoes) and bake at
400 degrees F., 30 to 40 minutes. Cover during first part of baking to
prevent the crumbs from browning too rapidly. Serve hot. A scalloped
dish should be served from the dish in which it is baked.
Green tomatoes may be scalloped in the same manner as ripe tomatoes.
Soft or dried bread crumbs may be used in scalloping tomatoes. Use only 1
cupful of the dried crumbs.
TO GREASE OR OIL A PAN OR BAKING-DISH.--Heat slightly the pan or dish to
be oiled. Put a bit of fat on a small piece of clean paper. Then rub the
heated pan or dish with the paper. This is a most satisfactory method
because little fat is required and the utensils used for oiling do not
have to be cleaned. Often a spoon or cup that has contained fat may be
wiped with a piece of paper and the latter used for greasing a pan. It is
well for a housekeeper to have a boxful of pieces of paper in the kitchen
for this purpose. Some authorities consider a pastry brush a satisfactory
means of applying melted butter for oiling. Much fat, however, clings to
the bristles of the brush and the brush needs frequent and careful
cleaning.
Butter, oleomargarine, lard, vegetable fats, or oils may be used for
oiling pans or baking-dishes.
QUESTIONS
In stuffed tomatoes, note that the seasonings are added to the crumbs
before they are buttered. Why?
Why test the tomatoes with a knitting needle or skewer rather than with a
fork?
What kind of baking-pan--tin, granite, or earthenware--is best to use for
Stuffed or Scalloped Tomatoes? Why? (See _Suggestions for Cooking
Fruits_, p.65)
Are tomatoes sold by weight or by measure, _i.e._ by the pound or
peck?
What is the price of tomatoes per pound or peck?
How many slices of bread are required to make 2 cupfuls of crumbs?
How many slices in one loaf of bread?
LESSON III
FUELS AND COMBUSTION--SAUTED AND BAKED SQUASH
FUEL.--In order to cook foods, heat in some form must be applied. This
heat is obtained usually by burning some substance. Thus the first
requisite for obtaining heat is something to burn, _i.e._ a fuel. The
fuels commonly used in households are,--wood, coal, kerosene, and gas.
Although electricity is not a fuel, its use in cooking is so well
established that it should be mentioned as a source of heat.
HEAT; KINDLING TEMPERATURE.--There are fuel substances everywhere,--paper,
cloth, wood, etc. These materials do not burn unless heated; even gas does
not burn by simply turning on the stopcock. But if a piece of paper is
placed in contact with glowing iron, the paper burns. It burns because it
is heated. If the blazing paper is placed in contact with kindling wood
and coal, the kindling wood soon begins to burn because it is heated by
the burning paper. The coal burns when it is heated by the burning wood.
All fuels must be heated before they will burn.
When one thinks of the ease with which paper "catches fire" and of the
difficulty of making hard coal burn, it becomes evident that some
substances require only a small amount of heat before they will burn,
while others require much heat. Different materials, then, require
different degrees of heat to burn. The phosphorus and other substances on
the tip of a match ignite readily. The heat that is developed by rubbing
the tip over some surface is sufficient to make the phosphorus burn. The
burning phosphorus and other substances heat the match stick to the
temperature at which it begins to burn; the burning match stick applied to
paper heats the latter to the temperature at which it burns. The
temperature to which a substance must be heated in order to burn and
continue to burn is called the _kindling temperature_ of that
substance.
DRAFT; OXYGEN.--
EXPERIMENT 3: LACK OF DRAFT.--(_a_) Place a short candle on a pan.
Light the candle and put a tall slender lamp chimney over it. Does the
candle continue to burn? Why?
(_b_) Again light the candle and replace the chimney, but this time
support it on two sticks of wood or on the handles of a knife and fork so
that it will not rest directly on the pan. Place a saucer or a piece of
cardboard over the top of the chimney. Does the candle continue to burn?
Why?
EXPERIMENT 4: PRESENCE OF DRAFT.--Remove the cover from the top of the
chimney, and again light the candle. Does it continue to burn? What
substance necessary for combustion is present in the chimney? Explain why
the candle soon went out in Experiment 3, but continued to burn in this
experiment.
If a blanket is thrown upon a burning stick of wood, the wood soon ceases
to burn. The wood stops burning because the oxygen of the air is excluded
from it. _The act of burning,_ i.e. _combustion, is the union of
any substance with oxygen, with the result that heat and light are
produced._ We have learned that a fuel cannot unite with oxygen until
heated to a certain temperature. And, no matter how hot it is, the fuel
will not burn unless it unites with oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the third
requisite for combustion.
The necessity for a draft, _i.e._ a continuous supply of fresh air
which furnishes oxygen, is shown by Experiments 3 and 4.
SAUTED [Footnote 4: To saute is to brown in a small quantity of fat.]
SUMMER SQUASH [Footnote 5: See footnote 3.]
Wash summer squash. Cut it in slices 3/4 inch thick. (Do not remove the
skin or the seeds.) Dip each slice in flour. In a frying pan put some fat
and heat it. Add the squash and cook each slice on both sides until golden
brown in color. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Then place a cover over the
frying pan and continue to cook the squash until it is tender. Serve at
once.
BAKED WINTER SQUASH [Footnote 6: See "Note to Teacher," Footnote 3]
Wash a squash and cut or split it into pieces of suitable size for
serving. Remove the seeds from each piece and make several gashes (at
right angles to one another) cutting through the pulp down to the shell.
Place the pieces (shell down) on the grating in the oven and bake (at
moderate temperature) until the pulp is tender. Serve hot, with butter,
salt, and pepper.
QUESTIONS
Name the three requisites for combustion.
Which has the higher kindling temperature, wood or coal? Explain your
answer.
What is the price of summer and of winter squash? How much of each kind of
squash is required to serve 6 persons?
LESSON IV
COAL RANGES [Footnote 7: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The principles of building
a coal fire and of regulating dampers may be applied to furnaces and
heating stoves as well as to kitchen ranges. In case there are no cooking
or heating stoves or furnaces in which coal is burned in the homes of the
pupils, this lesson may be omitted]--CORN DISHES
EXAMINATION OF A COAL RANGE.--Remove the lids from the coal range. Note
the location of the fire box. What is its purpose? How is the floor of the
fire box constructed? Where is the check damper? What is its purpose?
Where is the ash pan? Where is the front damper? What is its purpose? Note
the place where the stovepipe joins the range. What is the purpose of the
stovepipe? Note the damper in the stovepipe. What is its purpose? Note the
location of the oven. By what is the oven surrounded? Find the oven
damper. Open it. In what direction do the hot gases pass out when the oven
damper is open? What part of the range is heated when the oven damper is
open?
_An open damper permits a direct draft to pass through the range_
(see Figure 10).
Close the oven damper. Trace the direction of the hot gases when the
damper is closed. What parts of the range are heated when the oven damper
is closed?
_A closed oven damper permits an indirect draft to pass through the
range_ (see Figure 11).
How should the front, oven, check, and chimney dampers be arranged when
the fire is kindled?
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION.--What is found deposited on the inside of the
stovepipe of a coal range? To what is the upper end of the stovepipe
joined? What does one often see coming from the top of a chimney?
[Illustration: FIGURE 10.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF DIRECT DRAFT.]
In the previous lesson it was found that when a material burned, it united
with oxygen. It is a matter of common observation that when all solid
fuels--coal, wood, paper--burn, they decrease in size, and that fuel gas
is consumed. Apparently only a few ashes remain when solid fuels have
been burned, and only a disagreeable odor remains when gas has been
burned. Yet soot is deposited in the stovepipe and smoke issues from the
chimney. Both solid and gaseous materials, such as ashes, soot, and smoke,
are formed when fuels burn. Such materials are called _products of
combustion_.
FIRE BUILDING IN A COAL RANGE.--It is necessary to have the fire box, ash
pan, and other parts of the stove clean before building a fire. After
cleaning, place a generous layer of loosely crumpled paper over the bottom
of the fire box, then about four layers of kindling wood, placed so that
there are air passages between the pieces, and on top of the wood put two
shovelfuls of coal. Regulate the dampers for a direct draft, replace the
stove-lids, and brush the surface of the stove.
[Illustration: FIGURE 11.--COAL RANGE SHOWING COURSE OF INDIRECT DRAFT.]
Before lighting the fuels, polish the range in the following manner: To
the nickel of the stove apply whiting and ammonia or any satisfactory
metal cleanser.
To the iron of the stove apply oil rather than "blacking." Light paraffin
oil may be used for this purpose. Apply the oil with cotton waste, or a
soft cloth. (Care should be taken not to apply an excess of oil.) Polish
with soft cotton or woolen cloth. One should remember, however, that oil
must be used with caution. _It should never be applied to a stove
containing burning fuels._ If the stove cloth, saturated with oil, is
not destroyed after using, it is well to keep it in a covered tin can or
stone jar. After polishing the stove, light the fuels. When the wood is
reduced to glowing embers and the coal is burning, add more coal. If this
burns well, change the dampers to make an indirect draft.
GREEN CORN In selecting corn for cooking, choose those ears that are
filled with well-developed kernels, from which milky juice flows when
pressed with the thumb. Cook as soon as possible after gathering.
_To boil green corn_ remove silk and husk from the corn, place the
ears in boiling water. Cook the corn until no juice flows from the kernels
when pressed (usually from 12 to 20 minutes). Serve whole on a platter.
The platter may be covered with a folded napkin.
_To bake green corn_ select 12 ears. Remove the corn from the cob as
follows: Cut through the center of each row of grains, slice off the tops
of the kernels, and then scrape the pulp thoroughly from the cob. Put in a
baking-dish, add:
3/4 cupful milk
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Pepper
Bake in a moderate oven for about 45 minutes. Serve hot.
Green corn which has been cut from the cob may also be cooked on top of
the range. To the corn cut from 12 ears, add the same ingredients, using
less milk. Cook at simmering temperature until tender.
SCALLOPED CORN
1 can corn
2/3 cupful milk
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
Mix the corn, milk, and seasonings. Mix the crumbs and fat, and place one
fourth of them in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, add one half of
the corn mixture, then another fourth of the crumbs, the remainder of the
corn mixture, and finally the remainder of the buttered crumbs. Bake at
400 degrees F., for 45 minutes.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to have the fire box, ash pan, and other parts
of a coal range clean before building a fire.
If both hard and soft woods are used in building a fire, which should be
placed next to the paper? Explain your answer.
What is the advantage in using oil rather than blacking in cleaning a
range?
Explain why a stove cloth, saturated with oil, should be kept in a covered
tin can or stone jar.
Compare the method of mixing the crumbs in Scalloped Tomatoes and in
Scalloped Corn. Which contains the more moisture,--corn or tomatoes? From
this explain the difference in mixing.
What is the price of 12 ears of green corn or of 1 can of corn?
LESSON V
GAS RANGES--SCALLOPED FRUIT
EXAMINATION OF A GAS BURNER.--Inspect a gas burner and find the following
parts: (_a_) Supply pipe. (_b_) Stopcock. (_c_) Burner.
(_d_) Mixer (see Figure 12).
To light a gas burner, observe the following directions, and in the order
named: (_a_) Strike the match. (_b_) Turn the stopcock.
(_c_) Apply the match to the open burner. (_d_) If necessary,
regulate the stopcock and mixer, so that the flame is blue in color.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Clark Stove Co_ FIGURE 12.--GAS BURNER
SHOWING MIXER]
EXPERIMENT 6: THE REGULATION AND PURPOSE OF A GAS MIXER.--Light a gas
burner and then completely close the mixer of the burner. If the mixer is
stationary, it may be closed by wrapping a piece of paper about it. What
is the color of the flame? Now open the mixer. What is the color of the
flame? What substance has been "mixed" with the gas by opening the burner?
What is the purpose of the mixer?
EXAMINATION OF A GAS RANGE.--Inspect a gas range and find the following
parts: (_a_) Top burners--regular, giant and simmering (see Figure
13). (_b_) Stopcocks of top burners. (_c_) Oven burners.
(_d_) Stopcocks of oven burners. (_e_) Pilot (if there is one).
(_f_) Baking oven. (_g_) Broiling oven. (_h_) Warming oven
and its burner (if there is one). (_i_) Supply pipe. (_j_)
Stovepipe.
The method of lighting oven burners varies in different ranges, and for
this reason it is impossible to give directions for lighting which will
apply to all oven burners. There is, however, one important direction that
should always be borne in mind. _Always open the oven door before
lighting the oven burners._ If such caution is not observed, the gas
may escape into the oven and cause an explosion. In case there is a pilot-
lighter, open the oven door and see that the oven burners are turned off
before lighting the pilot.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Clark Stove Co FIGURE 13--GAS BURNERS A,
giant, B, regular, C, simmering]
ADJUSTING A GAS BURNER.--The products of combustion of fuel gas that most
interest the housekeeper are carbon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
not a poisonous gas, but it does not support animal life. Air containing
much carbon dioxide does not contain enough oxygen for perfect
respiration, hence the need of an outlet for the products of combustion of
a gas stove; good flue construction is quite as necessary for a gas range
as for a coal range (see Figure 14).
When gas burns with a yellow flame, it deposits soot on cooking utensils
and does not give as much heat as it should. This is caused by incomplete
combustion. Moreover, _carbon monoxide_, which is present in some
gas, may escape without burning. This is an exceedingly poisonous gas and
when inhaled even in small quantities may cause serious effects. Hence it
is specially necessary for a housewife to see that the gas burner is
clean, well regulated, and properly constructed, so that sufficient air
can mix with the gas to produce a blue flame.
CONSERVING GAS.--According to authoritative information, [Footnote
8: United States Fuel Administration Bulletin, "Use and Conservation of
Natural Gas"] "the demands for natural gas are now greater than the
available supply. Food and trees can be grown. Water supplies are
constantly replenished by nature, but there is no regeneration in natural
gas." It is thought that natural gas forms so slowly that millions of
years will be required to make the present concentrated supply. As far as
we are concerned, when the present supply is used up, it is gone forever.
Since natural gas is a most efficient fuel, every housekeeper and
householder should feel obligated to waste none of it. Suggestions for
conserving gas follow:
(1) See that the mixer is properly adjusted so that the flame is light
blue in color.
(2) In selecting a gas stove, see that the burner is so located that the
cooking surface is the correct distance above the burner. The tip of the
flame should touch the bottom of the utensil. If it is necessary to have a
long flame in order to bring this about, there is considerable waste of
gas.
(3) If the flame is long, the gas pressure is greater than necessary.
Regulate the gas pressure by adjusting the valve in the supply pipe. A
short flame will save gas and produce satisfactory results, provided the
cooking surface is the proper distance above the burner.
(4) After the contents of a cooking utensil boils, turn the gas cock so
that only "gentle" boiling takes place. A food becomes no hotter in
rapidly boiling than in gently boiling water.
(5) When possible, use the simmering burner rather than the regular or
giant burner.
(6) Let the flame touch only the bottom of the cooking utensil. There is a
wastage of gas when the flame streams lip the sides of the cooking
utensil.
(7) Turn off the gas immediately when fuel is not needed. Matches are
cheaper than fuel gas.
CARE OF THE GAS RANGE.--_Daily Care_.--If any substance on the stove
cannot be removed easily, loosen it with a knife, and then wipe the stove
with a newspaper. Clean the stove with waste or a cloth having a little
light paraffin oil on it. Polish with soft cotton or flannel cloth. Remove
the tray that is beneath the top burners, and wash.
_Weekly Care_.--Wash the inside of the oven and the movable tray with
water to which washing soda solution has been added. It is well to light
the oven burner to dry the stove after washing the ovens. Polish the
nickel, if necessary. Clean the stove with oil as directed for a coal
range. (_Since oils ignite most readily, care should be taken not to
apply the oil when the stove is lighted!_) Wipe the burner with the
oil. Clean the small holes of the burners by using a knitting needle or
wire kept for this purpose; or, if the openings in the burners are slots,
use a knife to clean them.
SCALLOPED APPLES
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
3 cupfuls apples
1/2 cupful sugar
1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon
1/2 teaspoonful nutmeg
1/2 lemon,--juice and grated rind
1/4 cupful water
Mix the bread crumbs with the fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes.
Chop or cut the apples in small pieces, and add the remaining ingredients
to the apples. Arrange the crumbs and apple mixture in a baking dish as
directed for Scalloped Corn. Bake 40 to 60 minutes (until the apples are
tender and the crumbs brown), in a moderate oven. Cover during first 20
minutes of baking. Serve hot with sugar and cream or Hard Sauce. Care
should be taken in grating _lemon rind_. Only the thin yellow portion
should be used as flavoring.
HARD SAUCE
1 cupful butter
1 cupful powdered sugar
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the flavoring. Chill and
serve over hot puddings.
SCALLOPED BANANAS
In the Scalloped Apple recipe substitute bananas for apples, omit the
water, and use 1/2 teaspoonful of cinnamon and 1/8 teaspoonful of cloves
for the spices. Bake until the bananas are heated through and the crumbs
browned. (It will take about 15 minutes.) Serve as Scalloped Apples.
QUESTIONS
Explain fully why the oven door of a gas range should be opened while the
oven burners are being lighted.
If a gas stove has no pipe for waste products, what special caution must
be observed in ventilating the kitchen?
What are some of the advantages of a gas range over a coal range?
What disadvantage other than gas wastage is there when a flame streams up
the sides of a cooking utensil?
What causes pared apples to become discolored?
Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Apples so that
discoloration of the apples will be avoided.
How many medium-sized apples are required to make three cupfuls of chopped
apples?
What is the purpose of covering the Scalloped Apples during the first half
of the time for baking?
What is the effect of the air on peeled bananas?
Give the order of preparation of ingredients for Scalloped Bananas.
Why should the banana mixture be baked a shorter time than the apple
mixture?
What is the effect of too long baking on bananas?
What is the most practical method of cleaning a grater? Why should not the
dish-cloth be used in cleaning it?
LESSON VI
STOVES AND HEATING DEVICES--STUFFED PEPPERS, BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES
KEROSENE STOVES. [Footnote 9: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--In case no kerosene,
gasoline, or electric stoves are used in the homes of the pupils, the
portion of the lesson regarding these stoves may be omitted.]--Where gas
is not available for cooking, kerosene may serve as a fuel. In case a
house is equipped with a coal range, a kerosene stove may also be
desirable for use in summer time.
There are two types of kerosene stoves, viz., wick and wickless stoves.
The burners of the former type are supplied with cotton wicks which become
saturated with kerosene. When a match is applied to the wick, the
kerosene on it vaporizes and the vapor burns. The burning kerosene vapor
vaporizes more kerosene and thus the burning continues.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Detroit Vapor Stove Co_ FIGURE 15.--
CROSS-SECTION OF WICKLESS KEROSENE STOVE.]
In one type of wickless stove it is necessary to heat the burner so that
the kerosene will vaporize when it comes in contact with it (see Figure
15). Such a burner may be heated by pouring a small quantity of gasoline
into it. A lighter is then applied to the burner. When the latter is
sufficiently heated, the kerosene is turned on. The kerosene then
vaporizes as it flows into the hot burner and burns.
In other types of so-called wickless stoves, the burners are equipped with
asbestos or other incombustible material. This material becomes saturated
with kerosene and carries the fuel to the tip of the burner somewhat as
does a cloth wick.
It is especially necessary to keep kerosene burners clean. Bits of carbon
collect in them and prevent perfect combustion. This results in "smoke" or
soot issuing from the burner. It is well to keep the burners and wicks
free from charred material, and to renew the latter when they become
short.
Most kerosene stoves are equipped with removable containers for the fuel.
These should be kept filled with sufficient kerosene for burning. A wick
burner should never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene in the
container is exhausted.
GASOLINE STOVES [Footnote 10: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]--
Since gasoline is a much more readily inflammable fuel than kerosene, it
requires a different type of burner and stove. As a usual thing gasoline
cannot be burned in kerosene stoves nor kerosene in gasoline stoves. (In
the stove shown in Figure 15, however, either fuel may be burned.)
When gasoline is used in a stove, it is necessary to vaporize the gasoline
before lighting the burner. This is accomplished in most stoves by letting
the gasoline flow into a cup situated underneath the burner, turning off
the supply of gasoline, and then applying a match to the cup. By the time
the gasoline is burned the burner is heated. Then the stopcock is turned
on, a match applied to the burner, and the gasoline vaporizes and burns.
Gasoline burners, like those in which kerosene is burned, should be kept
clean. When a mixture of gasoline vapor and air is heated, an explosion
may result. It is for this reason that _the tank or gasoline container
of a stove should never be filled while the burners of the stove are
lighted or even hot._
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing
Co_ FIGURE 16.--ELECTRIC RANGE.]
ELECTRIC STOVES. [Footnote 11: See note to the teacher, Footnote 9.]--It
was mentioned previously that electricity is not a fuel. Hence electric
stoves are not provided with burners. They have heaters which contain
coils of wires through which an electric current passes. Electricity is
the cleanest source of heat for cooking. But in order to operate an
electric stove economically, it is necessary to utilize the current
required for a heating element to its greatest extent. For example, if the
current is turned on to heat the oven as many foods as possible should be
cooked in the oven (see Figure 16).
[Illustration: FIGURE 17.--PRESSURE COOKER.]
DEVICES AND UTENSILS FOR SAVING FUEL.--The _pressure cooker_ (see
Figure 17) in which a temperature higher than that of boiling water is
maintained is a great saver of fuel. A food can be cooked in from one
third to one fourth the usual length of time in one of these devices.
Moreover, pressure cookers are especially valuable for high altitude
cooking, where water boils at a temperature lower than at sea level.
The _steam cooker_ (see Figure 18) is a fuel saver, when several
foods are cooked at one time in it. Sufficient fuel for only one burner is
required to operate it. The so-called _clover leaf pans_ or
utensils of such shape that two or three can be placed over one burner or
heater save much fuel or current (see Figures 16 and 27.).
The _fireless cookers_ described in Lesson XXII are practical fuel
and heat savers.
STUFFED PEPPERS [Footnote 12: A choice of either Stuffed Peppers or
Butterscotch Apples may be made for this lesson.]
6 green peppers
1 cupful cooked meat, chopped
1 tablespoonful scraped onion
1 teaspoonful salt
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Toledo Cooker Co_ FIGURE 18.--STEAM
COOKER CONTAINING VARIOUS FOODS.]
Cut a slice from the stem end of each pepper or cut each pepper lengthwise
in halves. Remove the seeds.
Mix the chopped meat, onion, and salt. Mix the bread crumbs and fat as
directed in Stuffed Tomatoes. Combine the ingredients and stuff the
peppers with the mixture. Place the peppers in a baking-dish or pan, and
pour enough boiling water into the dish or pan to cover the bottom of it.
Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 30 to 45 minutes or until the
peppers are tender. Serve hot in place of meat.
If desired, 1/4 cupful fresh or canned tomatoes may be added to the
stuffing mixture. Cooked rice may be substituted for the bread crumbs. A
mixture of cooked rice and cheese sauce (see p 87) also makes a tasty
stuffing for peppers.
If a slice is cut from the top of the pepper, it may be used as a lid to
cover the pepper after stuffing.
BUTTERSCOTCH APPLES [Footnote 13: See footnote 12.]
5 apples
2/3 cupful brown sugar
1/2 cupful water
3/4 cupful milk
1/2 tablespoonful corn-starch
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Wash the apples, and cut them into quarters, pare and core them. Into a
saucepan put the sugar and water, and heat. When the sirup boils, add the
apples. Cover and boil gently until the apples are tender. Remove the
apples from the sirup with a skimmer or a wire egg beater, placing the
fruit in sherbet glasses or other suitable dishes for serving.
In another pan, mix the milk and corn-starch thoroughly. Stir and cook
until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then add it to the sirup in
which the apples were cooked. Boil for a few minutes. Add the salt,
butter, and vanilla. Stir these into the mixture, then pour the sauce over
the apples. Serve Butterscotch Apples hot or cold for a dessert.
QUESTIONS
State at least two reasons why gas, kerosene, and gasoline are more
popular fuels in summer time than coal.
Mention a possible cause for smoke issuing from a kerosene burner.
Why should a wick burner never be allowed to burn after all the kerosene
in the container is exhausted?
Carefully explain why the tank of a gasoline stove should never be filled
while the stove is lighted or hot.
Why are electric stoves not provided with burners?
Why is a pressure cooker regarded as a fuel saver?
How should a steam cooker be used in order to save fuel?
Explain how it is possible to save fuel by using clover leaf pans.
Note that no ground pepper is added to the stuffing for peppers Give the
reason for this.
What is the purpose of pouring boiling water in the dish or pan in which
peppers are baked?
Did the sirup in which the apples were placed completely cover the fruit?
From this explain why it is advisable to cover the apples during the
cooking.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the course in food study is begun in the fall,
when fruits are in season, the lessons of Division Seventeen--_The
Preservation of Food_--may follow this lesson. The plan of canning
fruit in the autumn is desirable, especially if the course in foods covers
but one year. If more than one year is devoted to food study, the teacher
may find it more satisfactory to can fruits in the autumn of the second
year, or at the close of the spring semester of the first year. The pupils
at these times will have become more skilful, so that the canning of foods
can be accomplished with greater satisfaction. The high cost of fruits and
sugar make it imperative that as little spoilage as possible result from
food preservation. (Also see the note at the end of lesson XIII.)
DIVISION TWO
BODY-REGULATING FOOD: WATER
LESSON VII
WATER AND BEVERAGES (A)
EXPERIMENT 6: THE DISSOLVING POWER OF WATER.--Put 1/2 teaspoonful of salt
in a test tube, half fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the test tube
with the thumb, then shake the tube. Do the contents become clear? Set the
tube aside for a few minutes. Does the salt separate from the water?
When a solid substance, by mixing with water, disappears in the water and
does not separate on standing, the solid substance is _dissolved_.
The salt was therefore dissolved in cold water, or it may be said that
salt is _soluble_ in cold water, or that water is a _solvent_ of
salt.
SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.--The change of foods in the body from insoluble to
a soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in the
digestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such as
salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergo
changes before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does not
dissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easily
dissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an important
step in the process of digesting.
USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.--A person might live for a number of weeks
without eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinking
water. Water has many uses in the body.
(_a_) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property,
water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (See
_Solution and Digestion_.)
(_b_) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to all
parts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body.
(_c_) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Because
water is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of the
body to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat of
the body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed of
water, also aids in regulating body temperature.
It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the
body working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in the
statement: _Water aids in regulating body processes_.
FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.--Since water is such a ready solvent, it
contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing
through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances
are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well
water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking
purposes unless boiled.
EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.--Fill a beaker half full of
water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes
which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What
does water contain which is driven off by heat?
EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.--Continue to heat the water
of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface
of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until
bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is
indicated by the larger bubbles?
HEATING WATER.--When bubbling occurs below the surface, water is
_simmering_. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off,
water is _boiling_.
[Illustration: FIGURE 19--SCENE ON A TEA PLANTATION.]
The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness
can be overcome somewhat by _aerating_ the water after boiling,
_i.e._ by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air
with it.
TEA AND ITS SELECTION.--Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan
(see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and
sold as tea.
In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest
leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence
are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves
make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are
choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves.
Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are
either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is
that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not.
Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance
called _tannin_ (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with
digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown
by the following:
EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.--(_a_) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea
in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes,
then strain the infusion.
(_b_) Repeat (_a_) substituting green tea for black.
(_c_) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage.
To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the
tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present.
Which kind of beverage,--black or green tea,--shows the greater quantity
of tannin?
By fermentation, tannin is changed into a _less soluble form_, so the
beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from
green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more
stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not
dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture
of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor
of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in
various countries have different flavors.
Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by
adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not
reach this country.
MAKING THE BEVERAGE.--Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen,
enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never
be used. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) The ingredient in
tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea
leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans.
Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and
stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially
draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are
allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is
drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water
over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves.
TEA (proportion for one cupful)
1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves
1 cupful freshly boiled water
Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and
add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the
teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea
leaves.
Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20)
for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the
leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the
surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots
may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other.
The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If
the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are
loosely folded.
Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The
latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry.
In warm weather _Iced Tea_ may be served. "Left over" tea may be
utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to
it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a
finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar
does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments
10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Manning, Bowman Co FIGURE 20.--TEA-BALL
TEAPOT.]
Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some
tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating
material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons,
and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea.
TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE
Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the
cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the
oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve.
If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface
spread with cheese.
QUESTIONS
By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves?
How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea?
Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7
and 8.)
Which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green? Explain.
Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes?
From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black
teas. From what countries do they come?
How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a
pound?
Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the
quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers.
LESSON VIII
WATER AND BEVERAGES (B)
WATER AS A BEVERAGE.--Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such
as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain
water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the
needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage.
When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of
water. From one to two quarts of water,--either as plain water or in
beverages,--should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water
drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown
that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it
has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are
not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used.
WATER, A FOODSTUFF.--The body is nourished by food and there are many
different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one
substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which
foods are composed are called _nutrients_ or _foodstuffs_
[Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of
the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a
scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly called _food
principles.)_ A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain
several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs.
[Illustration: Figure 21--Coffee Berries.]
Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall
study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body.
As explained in the previous lesson, water is a _body-regulating
foodstuff._
USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.--Water is a cleansing
agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most
important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium
for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling.
Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as
in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can
be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for
example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during
cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking.
COFFEE.--Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in
tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or
berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed
from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans,
are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due
to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and
the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a
port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee
grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of
coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not
used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of
coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil.
Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and
therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be
extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through
it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid
is extracted by long boiling.
Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased
ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly
covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In
this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma.
BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful)
1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee
2 tablespoonfuls cold water
Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white
1 cup boiling water
(1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls
of
ground coffee.)
Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the
cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more
than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful
of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the
spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second
tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper
may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a
warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear.
Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee
CARE OF COFFEEPOT.--The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the
coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear
coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other
desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary.
The spout needs special care in cleaning.
FILTERED COFFEE
2/3 cupful finely ground coffee
5 cupfuls freshly boiled water
(For the following method of preparing coffee, a _drip coffeepot_ is
used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a
muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is
poured through the ground coffee.)
Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the
bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or
perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot.
Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly
boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage
may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken,
however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear
cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "_Black_"
or _After Dinner Coffee_ may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1
cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Manning, Bowman Co_ FIGURE 22.--COFFEE
PERCOLATOR.]
Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure
22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot
and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee.
The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the
percolator. Follow the directions that come with it.
OATMEAL COOKIES
1 egg
1/2 cupful sugar
3/8 cupful fat _or_ 1/4 cupful vegetable oil
2 tablespoonfuls sour milk
1 cupful rolled oats
1 cupful flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful baking soda
2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 cupful raisins
Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat
is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the
sour milk and rolled oats.
Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt,
baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first
mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little
flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the
mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate
oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.
These cookies may be served with coffee.
QUESTIONS
How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?
When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then
explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.
Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after
the coffee is boiled?
Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?
In what form,--ground or whole,--should coffee be purchased? Why?
In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.
How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping
tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.
What is the average price per pound of coffee?
RELATED WORK
LESSON IX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--One of the most
insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely
to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is
thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best
training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she
is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her
share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school
activities can be measured by the way they function in the home.
Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function
in the home than by the educative process called the _project_.
Stevenson defines a project _as a problematic act carried to completion
in its_ natural setting, while Kilpatrick says _a project is a whole-
hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment_.
In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the
needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils'
mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon
tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to
become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of
the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in
the home.
In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary
to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can
doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can
contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which
will be performed in a "hearty" manner.
Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For
successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a
project is an act which involves _mental effort_, and that the
activity must be _carried_ to _completion_. The fact that the
project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of
the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in
a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work
should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the
teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory
results.
The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:
Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project
Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X,
Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W.
Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The
Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]
WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.--Each member of a home has certain obligations to
fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an
unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home
duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy
home membership."
APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.--There is no more effective way
of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods
learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies
or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert
in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will
be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your
achievements will bring to the entire household.
Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will
doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad
to have your cooperation in housekeeping.
Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a
determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects."
To secure successful results, your home work must be done
_thoughtfully_, and _earnestly_, and in a _whole-hearted_
way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home
project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also
instructs you to keep in mind the following aims:
(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining
table.
(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other
things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or
other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal
is being served.
In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a
_determination_ to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your
mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your
work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a
week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have
given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you
will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have
made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future.
You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought
as you worked.
You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of
home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes,
it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if
possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their
cost.
Suggestions for Home Projects:
Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the
evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in
Lessons I to V once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as
possible.
(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note
the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency
methods strive to lessen the time.
(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped
dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the
members of your home will find them most palatable.
LESSON X
AFTERNOON TEA
PLANNING THE TEA.--To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or
having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged
that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit
with your teacher and classmates.
In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the
day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a
number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to
entertain your guests,--what you will have them do to have a pleasant
time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to
serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of
serving them must also be considered.
The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small
portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and
accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu.
Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.
The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or
Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut
Sweetmeats
From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream),
sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats
follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.
COCONUT SWEETMEATS
1/4 cupful powdered sugar
l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 egg white
Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff.
Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.
Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture
by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375
degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan,
place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.
SERVING THE TEA.--For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the
kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the
guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the
presence of the guests.
When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and
napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the
pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of
guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household
usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest
and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and
places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is
then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes
and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a
small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers,
sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty
baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take
them from the plates with their fingers.
Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests
have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also
replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the
materials and dishes needed.
DIVISION THREE
BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)
LESSON XI
FRESH VEGETABLES (A)
ASH.--In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not
consist of one material, but of several substances. _Ash_ or mineral
matter is a common constituent of food. It is a _foodstuff_. The term
"ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of
substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and
cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the
same kind of ash.
The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The
substance that remains after burning, _i.e._ the "ashes," is mineral
matter or ash.
Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a
few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral
substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes
forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been
heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment
salt--ordinary table salt--(see _Condiments_) must not be confused
with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances
besides common salt.
USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.--Ash as well as water does not burn in the body.
It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and
many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps
to build the body.
Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in
perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also
contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the
body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the
regulation of body processes.
Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (_a_) _it aids in building
the body_; and (_b_) _it aids in regulating body processes_.
Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.
FRESH VEGETABLES.--It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of
the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots
of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may
be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels
sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes,
cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.
Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed
most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.
In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain _cellulose_.
The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins
and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and
celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much
cellulose.
Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the
value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be
too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved
vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body
grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).
Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.--If ash is such a valuable
constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all
the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that
the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many
of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water
in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off
water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss
of nutriment.
Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables.
Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.
A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the
saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:
1. Cooking in water with their skins.
2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after
cooking for sauces and soups.
3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained
away after cooking.
4. Cooking in steam.
5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.
COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.--Water in which vegetables are cooked should
be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water
should be _boiling_ when the vegetables are added and should be kept
boiling _gently_ during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water
wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.
The water in which vegetables are cooked is called _vegetable stock_.
When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock
should be utilized in making vegetable sauces.
Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.
BEETS
Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as
not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the
beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see _Cooking
Vegetables in Water_). Test only the largest beet for sufficient
cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover
with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into
slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter.
A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.
Beets may also be served with a _sauce_. Prepare the sauce like White
Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.
Beets may be _pickled_ by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and
placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.
SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS
2 cupfuls sliced onions
2 cupfuls tomatoes
1 tablespoonful fat
Salt and pepper
1 cupful bread crumbs
Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is
drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions,
however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the
sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish
put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and
pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.
Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle
these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400
degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.
BROILED TOMATOES
Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them
(with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the
range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until
the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of
tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
QUESTIONS
Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain
considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11,
explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.
State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces
before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on
beets during cooking.
Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why
it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with
a fork.
What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?
Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and
tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.
What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after
parboiling them?
LESSON XII
FRESH VEGETABLES (B)
FOOD PREJUDICES.--Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain
foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste
of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may
be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food.
There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to
prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate
their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by
a thorough knowledge of the subject.
Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why
certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully,
you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously
considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing
experience.
TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.--It is not possible to state
just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time
varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a
vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables,
especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long
cooking.
For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a
food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking
a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time
table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the
most reliable test.
TABLE
Asparagus 15-20 minutes
Beets (young) 45-60 minutes
Beets (old) 3-4 hours
Cabbage 15-30 minutes
Carrots 30-60 minutes
Cauliflower 20-30 minutes
Celery 20-45 minutes
Green Corn 12-20 minutes
Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes
Onions 30-45 minutes
Parsnips 30-45 minutes
Peas (fresh) 20-30 minutes
Potatoes 25-30 minutes
Spinach 15-30 minutes
Squash (summer) 20-30 minutes
String Beans 1-3 hours
Sweet Potatoes 15-25 minutes
Turnips 30-45 minutes
PARING VEGETABLES.--If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it
should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new
potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the
valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin.
Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material
covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a
turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.)
MASHED TURNIPS
6 medium turnips
Salt and pepper
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of
a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or
knitting needle.
Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough
salt and pepper to season. Serve hot.
BUTTERED CARROTS
4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and
add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a
small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and
seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining
water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot.
Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may
be cooked in the same way.
(Adapted from a _United States Department of Agriculture_ recipe.)
QUESTIONS
Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible?
What is the exception to this rule?
How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why?
Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is
moisture not added to mashed turnips?
What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in
water?
Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large
amount?
What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of
these vegetables in a pound?
LESSON XIII
FRESH FRUITS
FRUIT, A NECESSITY.--An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family"
(p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much
money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should
no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet.
Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,--
the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits,
especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges,
and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in
constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,--they
are constipating.
A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and
fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy.
Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation
and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral
matter.
KINDS OF FRUITS.--In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This
classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered
vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are
termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but
because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as
such.
Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This
distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits
contain,--those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried
fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less
sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This
classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be
considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in
ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value.
WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a
practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most
cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable.
The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is
desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a
less desirable flavor results--the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh
flavor"--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is
cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a
mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to
fruit _after cooking_, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of
the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup
if it is desired to preserve its shape.
SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.--Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces,
and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking.
For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining.
We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for
paring fruit or certain vegetables. _This black substance is formed by
the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal._ It is
disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all
fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils.
The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This
can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a _low_ (simmering)
_temperature_ in a _covered_ utensil. The _casserole_ used
on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits.
Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces.
FRUIT SAUCES
Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is
tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press
through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the
sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of
cooked fruit.
If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding
spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding
cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice.
STEWED FRUITS
Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1
cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook
_gently_ until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the
fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of
proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit.
Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe
fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened.
COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.--Use the same kind of fruit
and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of
Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and
appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor?
At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit?
Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should
sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool?
Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.)
What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after
cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two
precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means,
other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked
fruit?
RHUBARB SAUCE
Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top
of a _double boiler_. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring
occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful
of cooked rhubarb.
The _casserole_ may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in
a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb.
Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add
sugar as directed above.
QUESTIONS
How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a
pound?
What is the price per pound of fresh peaches?
For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions
for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list
of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season.
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen,
_The Preservation of Food_, may follow this lesson. Also see the note
at the end of Lesson VI.
RELATED WORK
LESSON XIV
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is
to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that
its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods
are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product
is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in
individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal"
lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook
enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory
period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch
room.]
Scalloped Corn
Baked Apple
Tea
Outside Preparation of Lesson.
(_a_) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text.
(_b_) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make.
(_c_) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions
regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class.
(_d_) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food.
(_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in
the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be
ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_.
Preparation of Lesson in Class.
(_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work
independently.
(_b_) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more
persons as the time permits.
(_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible.
(_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.
(_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary.
(_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.
(_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be
ready for serving.
(_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and
serving without a maid.
(_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of
the failure and its remedy.
LESSON XV
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal
daily.
Cook fruit at least once a week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.
(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as
possible.
DIVISION FOUR
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES
LESSON XVI
SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR
ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this
machine gives it energy or the power to move.
The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human
machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power
to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary
and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind
of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood
are examples of the latter kind.
At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not
only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the
body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel
foods.
There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the
first one to be considered.
EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold
water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does
the sugar separate from the water?
EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve
half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with
Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If
you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you
have the water?
EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a
teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in
Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar?
Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar
quickly, how would you prepare it?
THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since
dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see
_Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar
would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a
chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too
concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is
slightly more complex.
Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude
that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to
other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much
dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the
stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true
when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty.
Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce
digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and
either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other
foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.
SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a
number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two
groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or
_glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or
_cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar.
The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade
names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A
discussion of these follows:
(_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or
sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then
purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by
crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely
ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar.
Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.
_Brown sugar_ is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as
much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.
(_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid
and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its
sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per
cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as
granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency
is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for
sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is
needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn
sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.
(_c_) _Molasses and Sorghum_.--Molasses is a by-product of cane
sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as
lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain
lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for
children.
One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for
children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar
refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It
also differs in flavor.
Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and
has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too
strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses
or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under
various trade names may be purchased.
(_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited
supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral
matter as is molasses.
(_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are
prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a
distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains
approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71
per cent.
PEANUT CANDY
2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_
1 cupful granulated sugar _and_
1 cupful corn sirup (dark)
3/4 cupful chopped peanuts
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar
is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and
stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup.
If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and
cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.
Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in
as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, _unbuttered_
pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.
_Puffed cereals_ or _shredded coconut_ may be used instead of
peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are
used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.
CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to
granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This
brown liquid is called _caramel_ The process of making it is called
_caramelization_.
When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting
point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of
granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of
temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature,
hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.
NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of
an injurious substance called _furfural_ is formed. (See Journal of
Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated,
the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields
more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn
sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural
is expelled.
In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water,
hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn
sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.
EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the
candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand
for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it
dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical
application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan
in which sugar has been caramelized?
QUESTIONS
Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?
What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?
What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?
Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and
that made with granulated sugar and sirup.
Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled
peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?
Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?
What is the advantage of heating the pan?
Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after
adding the peanuts?
Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of
peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.)
From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion,
absorption, and assimilation of foods.
LESSON XVII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)
DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has
been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they
are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh
fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and
ash.
Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They
are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most
dried fruit is sugar.
Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets
for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than
candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as
explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the
concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the _Digestion of
Sugar_.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is
another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits
contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its
laxative effect.
The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were
formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served
in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining
them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts
containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked
without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured
by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as
apricots, apples, and rhubarb.
Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long
distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their
high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver).
Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This
is an advantageous factor in carrying them.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place
it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water
over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak
for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering
temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender,
remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir
carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.
PRUNES
Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add
about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar
may be omitted and only the lemon juice added.
APRICOTS
Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2
cupful of sugar.
TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need
only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined
for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is
desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.
Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins
in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins
are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.
If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are
soft, drain and press out the seeds.
TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little
washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before
using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer,
shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands.
Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If
the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or
in a "cool" oven.
MIXED FRUIT SAUCE
1/2 pound dried apricots
1 pint water
1 cupful raisins
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 lemon,--juice
1 orange,--juice and grated rind
5/8 cupful sugar
Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the
other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the
apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until
dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.
QUESTIONS
Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.
Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight
and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due?
What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What
does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)
What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?
What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?
Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that
obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the
difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.
State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked
Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.
LESSON XVIII
SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)
DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as
accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often
with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs.
These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be
added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and
nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are
unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.
PRUNE PUDDING
1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped
1/2 cupful sugar
1 cupful chopped nuts
1/2 cupful milk or prune water
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 tablespoonful butter _or_ substitute, melted
3 crackers (rolled fine) _or_ 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the
baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes,
or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped
cream.
DATE PUDDING
1/2 cupful sugar
1 egg
2 tablespoonfuls milk
1/3 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful baking powder
Salt
1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces
1 cupful California walnuts, chopped
Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to
the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in
a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or
cold with plain or whipped cream.
QUESTIONS
How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked
prunes? (See _Questions_, Lesson XVII.)
What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?
How many will the above recipes serve?
What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding
surrounded with hot water during baking?
LESSON XIX
CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE
STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the
body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition
and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs
from sugar.
EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,--
corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca,
potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?
If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture
of iodine is added to it.
From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the
starchy foods belong.
EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful
of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What
happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set
the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch
soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar
does this experiment show?
EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch
and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn
the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the
test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by
heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and
water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble,
like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term
indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?
EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube
containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten
minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked
starch change when cooled?
EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the
microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a
drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.
CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As
previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and
their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material
found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.
EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping
teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it.
Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese-
cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a
saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by
holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the
cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common
material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this
substance?
The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23)
contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of
the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose:
(_a_) in the outside covering; (_b_) in the interior framework;
(_c_) in the covering of the starch grains.
[Illustration: From _Household Chemistry_, by J. M. Blanchard. Figure
23.--Grains of Starch. _a_, potato starch; _b_, corn-starch.
(Much magnified.)]
Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain
fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in
the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food.
Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it
softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose
are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in
contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food
and separate cellulose fibers.
Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:
(_a_) They soften the food; (_b_) they change the starch to a
paste or make it semisoluble; (_c_) they improve the flavor.
Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an
energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and
furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the
digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract,
and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste
material.
CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have
somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are
grouped into one class, viz. _carbohydrate_. Sugar, starch, and
cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. _Carbohydrate is
one of the foodstuffs_. Sugar is a food containing only the
carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other
foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than
any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as
carbohydrate-rich foods.
CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for
food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye,
and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and
breakfast foods are prepared.
Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per
cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the
body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have
an important place in man's diet.
At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1)
the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The
ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that
require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an
accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in
cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.
Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are
doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are
steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home
kitchen than the uncooked grains.
All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable,
the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the
method of preparing the cereal for market.
Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is
usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a
rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2
hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked
cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are
also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure
greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that
require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and
need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.
GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling
salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then
place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually _one
teaspoonful of salt_ is used for _each cupful of cereal_. The
quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is
particularly good for cooking cereals. The _fireless cooker_ also is
a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and
economically.
Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods
require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the
water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done,
the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of
water is evaporated.
Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the
top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be
prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.
Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.
ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler
at least 1 1/2 hours.
CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA
3 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 cupful cereal
1 teaspoonful salt
Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at
least 1/2 hour.
A few minutes before taking from the fire, 1/2 pound of dates, cleaned,
stoned, and cut into pieces, may be added. Raisins or figs may also be
used with Cream of Wheat and other cereals.
QUESTIONS
How would the temperature of boiling water be affected if a cupful of
cereal were poured into it all at once? From this explain why cereals
should be added _slowly_ to the boiling water.
Compare the cooked and uncooked cereal. How does it change in appearance
and quantity?
Why are cereals not cooked entirely over the naked flame?
What is the price, weight, and measure of a package of Rolled Oats or
Wheat? Of a package of Cream of Wheat or Wheatena?
What is the cost of the quantity of cereal indicated in the recipes above?
Calculate the difference in the cost per pound of ready-to-eat and
uncooked cereals.
LESSON XX
CEREALS: RICE (A)
POLISHED AND UNPOLISHED RICE.--At market one finds two kinds of rice,--one
white and pearly in appearance called _polished_ rice, and the other,
gray or brown and lusterless called _unpolished_ rice. In preparing
rice for market, the outer husks of the grain are removed and the rice is
cleaned. It may then be sold as unpolished rice or it may be further
treated by rubbing or polishing to make it ready for market. Rice is
subjected to this latter process merely to satisfy the demand of
purchasers. The food value of polished rice is inferior to that of the
unpolished grain. Much valuable ash and other material are lost. Indeed, a
certain disease, [Footnote 22: Beri-beri, a disease common among those
inhabitants of Oriental countries whose diet consists almost entirely of
polished rice and fish.] due to improper nourishment, has been cured by
giving the sufferer rice polishings. The flavor of rice is also impaired
by polishing it. Unpolished rice is much the more valuable food. It
requires, however, longer cooking than polished rice. Soaking in water
before cooking shortens the length of time required for cooking.
TO CLEAN RICE.--To wash rice, put it in a strainer and allow the water
from a faucet to run through the strainer. Rub the rice between the hands.
RICE (cooked over boiling water)
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful rice
Follow the General Rules for Cooking Cereals; when the rice is added to
the boiling water, stir it to prevent adhering to the pan. Cook over hot
water, _i.e._ in a double boiler, until the grains are soft (usually
about 45 minutes).
The above ingredients may be placed in a steamer (see Figure 31) and
cooked in steam until the rice grains are tender. It is then called
_Steamed Rice_.
Rice is most palatable combined with various fruits.
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS
[Illustration: FIGURE 24--A CUPFUL OF RICE BEFORE AND AFTER BOILING The
large utensil was required to boil it, the water drained from it is in the
jar]
BOILED RICE [Footnote 23: Reserve some of the cooked rice of this lesson
for the following lesson.]
3 quarts boiling water
1 cupful rice
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Add the salt to the boiling water. When the water boils rapidly, add the
rice slowly, so that the water does not stop boiling. Boil _rapidly_
for 20 minutes or until the grains are soft. Turn into a colander or
strainer to drain. Rinse with hot water, drain well, then sprinkle with
salt.
Save the water from the Boiled Rice for the experiment below and for
preparing Cheese Sauce for class work.
When the rice is boiling, decide whether or not it should be covered
tightly.
EXPERIMENT 20 THE DIFFERENCE IN NUTRITIVE VALUE OF BOILED RICE AND RICE
COOKED OVER BOILING WATER--Pour a little of the water from the boiled rice
into a test tube. Cool the rice water and test it with iodine for starch.
Is any of the starch from rice cooked over boiling water wasted? Which
method of cooking rice leaves more nutriment in the cooked product?
CHEESE SAUCE (made with rice water)
1 pint rice water
1 tablespoonful corn-starch
1 teaspoonful salt
1/4 teaspoonful mustard
1/6 teaspoonful paprika
1/2 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces
Mix the corn-starch with about 2 tablespoonfuls of cold rice water. Heat
the remainder of the liquid. Add the corn-starch mixture to the hot rice
water. Stir and cook for about 10 minutes. Then add the seasonings and
cheese. Continue stirring and cooking until the cheese is blended with the
other ingredients. Serve hot over cooked rice.
One cupful of tomatoes or a small quantity of pimentos (cut into pieces)
may be added along with the cheese to the sauce. If pimentos are used, the
paprika should be omitted.
QUESTIONS
How is rice tested for sufficient cooking?
Why does rice take a shorter time to cook than most of the wheat and oat
foods? (See _Cereals_.)
Note the difference in the quantity of water used for boiled rice and for
rice cooked over boiling water. Note that the saucepan is used for cooking
one and the double boiler for cooking the other. From this explain the
reason for the difference in the quantity of water used.
Which method of cooking rice takes longer? Explain the difference in the
length of time of cooking.
Measure the rice after cooking. How much has it increased in bulk? If one
desired 2 cupfuls of cooked rice, how much uncooked rice should be used?
Compare the individual grains of rice cooked in boiling water and rice
cooked over boiling water,--are the grains separated or pasted together?
Explain the difference in appearance.
What ingredients do cereals contain that make it possible to mold them
(see Experiment 17)? Which is the better for molding,--boiled rice or
rice cooked over boiling water? Why?
What is the advantage in using rice water rather than plain water to
prepare Cheese Sauce?
What other use could be made of rice water?
LESSON XXI
CEREALS: RICE (B)
RICE PUDDING
Steamed rice may be prepared for a simple dessert by using both milk and
water. Follow the recipe for Rice Cooked over Boiling Water, using 1 1/2
cupfuls of water and l 1/2 cupfuls of milk. Cook the water and rice until
the water is absorbed, add the milk, and continue cooking over water.
Serve with cream and sugar, or with a suitable sauce.
RICE PUDDING (made with cooked rice) [Footnote 24: A portion of the rice
cooked in the previous lesson may be utilized in making this pudding.]
2 cupfuls cooked rice
3/4 - 1 cupful milk
1/2 cupful raisins
1/3 cupful sugar
Grated rind 1/2 lemon
These ingredients may be cooked in several different ways. By changing the
flavoring, method of serving, and sauce, rice desserts of pleasing variety
may be made from the materials above.
The pudding may be _baked_ in the following manner: Mix the
ingredients, place in a buttered baking-dish, and bake in a slow oven
until the rice has absorbed the milk and is brown. Vanilla or nutmeg, or
both, may be substituted for the lemon rind.
This dessert may be _cooked over water_ by mixing the ingredients in
the top of a double boiler and cooking until the milk is absorbed. Then
butter hot custard cups or tea cups and press some rice into each. Turn
out at once and serve with Caramel, Chocolate, or other sauce.
Lemon Sauce, in which dates, cut into pieces, have been cooked, makes a
tasty sauce for this pudding. When Lemon Sauce and dates are used, the
raisins should be omitted and the pudding flavored with nutmeg.
CARAMEL SAUCE
1/3 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful milk
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Salt
Mix the sugar, flour, and butter in a frying pan; then heat the mixture to
caramelize the sugar, stirring constantly. Scald the milk in a double
boiler. When the sugar is caramelized, add it to the hot milk and heat the
mixture until the caramelized sugar is dissolved. Add the salt and
vanilla. [Footnote 25: If the sauce is to be served cold, it is well to
allow the cooked mixture to cool before adding the vanilla (see
_Flavoring Extracts_).] Serve hot or cold over puddings.
QUESTIONS
Why is it advisable to use a double boiler for cooking rice? (See Lesson
XX)
If rice is cooked in a double boiler and milk is to be added, why should
not the milk be added until the rice mixture is placed over hot water?
(See statement regarding the scorching of milk in _Questions_, Lesson
XXIV)
Which method of cooking the Rice Pudding--baking or cooking over water--
requires more milk? Explain your answer. Also explain why a definite
quantity of milk cannot be stated in the recipe.
See "Note," Lesson XVI. Is any of the injurious substance formed in
caramelizing sugar present in Caramel Sauce?
LESSON XXII
CEREALS AND THE FIRELESS COOKER
THE FIRELESS COOKER.--The fact that fuels are expensive and that the
supply of some fuels is diminishing, makes it advisable to conserve heat.
This can be done in no more satisfactory way than by means of a fireless
cooker.
It has been said that future historians in summing up the great
achievements of the first quarter of the twentieth century will probably
name as the most important, wireless telegraphy, aviation, and fireless
cookery. The fireless cooker cannot be used with all methods of cooking,
but its possibilities are many.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _McCray Refrigerator Co_ FIGURE 25.
--INSULATED WALL OF A REFRIGERATOR.]
THE PRINCIPLE OF FIRELESS COOKERY.--In Experiment 2 it was found that wood
did not transmit heat rapidly, while tin did. Another familiar
illustration will show the difference between wood and metal in
transmitting heat. A metal door knob feels very cold on a winter day,
because the metal conducts the heat away from the hand rapidly, while a
wooden knob is comfortable to touch. Wood is termed a poor conductor of
heat. Metals are good conductors of heat.
Paper, hay, excelsior, sawdust, cork, wool, feathers, and many other
materials are poor conductors of heat. If any hot substance is surrounded
by any of these poor conducting materials, the heat of that substance is
retained for some time. Also, if any cold substance is surrounded by a
poor conductor, the substance remains cold. In throwing a piece of carpet
or newspaper over an ice cream freezer, to prevent the ice from melting,
one makes use of the latter principle.
[Illustration: FIGURE 26.--FIRELESS COOKER HAVING EXCELSIOR PACKING.]
The walls of a well-built refrigerator consist of a number of layers of
non-conducting materials (see Figure 25).
To understand the principle involved in "cooking without fire," try the
following:
EXPERIMENT 12: RETENTION OF HEAT.--Fill 2 tin measuring cups half full of
boiling water. Immediately inclose one cup of water in a paper bag or wrap
paper about it so there will be considerable air space between the cup and
paper. After 15 minutes, insert a thermometer into the water in each of
the cups. Which is hotter? What has "kept in" the heat of the hotter
water?
The fireless cooker is a device containing cooking kettles which are
surrounded by some poor conductor. When food is heated thoroughly, the
heat can be retained for a number of hours by placing the hot food in the
fireless cooker.
[Illustration: FIGURE 27--FIRELESS COOKER WITH STONE DISKS Note the
kettles of various shapes]
In the ordinary fireless cooker it is possible to cook all foods that can
be cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point of water,
_i. e._ simmering temperature. Another type of fireless cooker has a
metallic or an enamel lining and is provided with movable stone disks.
Both the stones and food are heated on a range and then introduced into
the cooker in such a way that the stones are under and over the kettle of
food. By this arrangement, foods can be cooked at a higher temperature
than in the ordinary fireless cooker (see Figures 26 and 27).
There are also electric fireless cookers (see Figure 28). Such cookers are
equipped with a heating element which is placed in the bottom of the
insulated box. With these it is not necessary to heat the food before
placing it in the cooker. The uncooked food is put into the cooker and the
current turned on. By means of a clock arrangement the current may be cut
off when the desired length of time of heating has passed.
[Illustration: Courtesy of the _Standard Electric Stove Co_ FIGURE
28.--ELECTRIC FIRELESS COOKER. Has a heating element in the bottom of the
cooker.]
The principle of the fireless cooker is used on some of the modern gas and
electric ranges. The walls of the ovens of these ranges are surrounded by
insulating materials. When an oven is heated and has reached the desired
temperature, the gas or electricity is cut off, but the baking temperature
is retained for some time. The top burners of some gas ranges have a
fireless cooker attachment in the form of an insulated hood. The food is
first heated over the burner, then the hood is lowered over the food, and
the gas is cut off. The food continues to cook, however, by the retained
heat (see Figure 29).
SUGGESTIONS FOR USING A FIRELESS COOKER.--One should keep the following in
mind in using the ordinary fireless cooker:
[Illustration: Courtesy of the _Chambers Manufacturing Co._ FIGURE
29.--GAS RANGE HAVING FIRELESS COOKER ATTACHMENT, INSULATED OVEN AND
HOODS.]
1. Have the food heated thoroughly before placing in the fireless cooker.
(This direction does not apply to an electrical fireless cooker such as
shown in Figure 28.) If the foods are small, as cereals, 5 minutes'
boiling is usually sufficient cooking on the range; if large in size, as a
piece of beef, 30 minutes is required to heat it through.
2. After heating, place the _covered_ kettle containing the food into
the cooker immediately. It is well to have the cooker near the range so as
to waste but little heat while getting the food into the cooker.
3. The kettle should be well filled. A small quantity of food should not
be placed in a large kettle. It is possible, however, to fill the large
kettle almost full of boiling water, then rest a wire rack on the rim of
the kettle and place a small pan containing the food in the wire rack (see
Figure 26). Or place the food in a pan with sloping sides and broad rim,
such as a "pudding pan," which may be set in the large kettle so as to
rest on the rim.
4. Do not open the cooker to "see how the food is getting along." If the
box is opened, the food must be removed at once. The food may, however, be
reheated and returned to the cooker. It is sometimes necessary to follow
this plan, where food requires very long cooking.
5. The length of time a food must be left in the fireless cooker varies
with the kind of food and style of cooker. In many of the homemade boxes,
the water does not remain hot enough for cooking after 12 hours; in some,
for not more than 8 hours. If foods require longer cooking than this, they
should be removed and reheated as mentioned above. _Food should never be
allowed to become cool in a fireless cooker_.
6. After using any type of fireless cooker, let the lid remain wide open
for 2 or 3 hours. Except when in use do not close it tightly.
Every thrifty housekeeper should possess and use a fireless cooker. As has
been mentioned, it saves fuel, prevents the strong odor of food permeating
all parts of the house, lessens work and care in cooking, prevents burning
and scorching, and provides workers and picnickers with warm lunches. A
fireless cooker can be made satisfactorily at home with little expenditure
of effort and money. It has been found that paper crumpled so as to afford
considerable air space is a satisfactory non-conducting material for a
fireless cooker. Detailed directions for making a fireless cooker are
given in United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 771,
"Homemade Fireless Cookers and Their Use" and in several popular books.
CORN-MEAL MUSH
4 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful corn-meal
1 teaspoonful salt
Mix the ingredients in the small pan of the fireless cooker and cook
directly over the flame of a range, boiling for 5 minutes, and stirring
occasionally. Cover and place in the large kettle of the fireless cooker
which contains boiling water. Place in a fireless cooker for 5 to 10
hours.
NOTE.--If corn-meal mush is to be cooked over a flame in a double boiler,
prepare according to the general rule for cereals and cook over boiling
water for at least 3 hours.
CORN-MEAL MUSH FOR "FRYING"
2 cupfuls corn-meal
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 teaspoonfuls salt
2 cupfuls cold water
1 quart boiling water
Mix the dry ingredients, add the cold water, and mix thoroughly. Place the
boiling water in the small pan of the fireless cooker. Stir the corn-meal
mixture into the boiling water and cook 10 minutes directly over the
flame, stirring constantly. Cover and place in the large kettle of boiling
water. Place in the fireless cooker 5 to 10 hours. Remove the pan of mush
from the water and allow the mush to cool.
NOTE.--Corn-meal Mush for frying may be cooked over a flame in a double
boiler according to the recipe given above. Cook it for several hours.
RICE AND TOMATOES
1/2 cupful rice
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful celery salt
l-1/4 cupfuls boiling water
1 cupful tomatoes
1 slice onion
1 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
In the small pan of the fireless cooker cook (over a flame) the rice,
onion, and fat, stirring constantly until they are slightly brown. Add
boiling water and cook until the water is almost absorbed. Add the
tomatoes and seasoning and heat the mixture until it boils. Cover and
place in the large kettle of boiling water belonging to the fireless
cooker. Place in the fireless cooker for 3/4 hour. This food may be served
as a border around meat.
QUESTIONS
In your own way, explain the principle of "cooking without fire."
What ingredient does Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" contain that plain Corn-
meal Mush does not? What is the use of this ingredient in Corn-meal Mush
for "Frying"? (See _Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.)
How does the method of preparing Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" differ from
the usual method of cooking cereals?
How many cupfuls of corn-meal in one pound? Of rice in one pound? What is
the price per pound of corn-meal and rice?
LESSON XXIII
CEREALS FOR FRYING OR BAKING
"FRIED" OR BAKED MUSH
Cut Corn-meal Mush for "Frying" into slices 1/3 inch thick. Dip each slice
in flour and brown in a little hot fat (butter or substitute, or a slice
of salt pork fat may be used).
The slices of mush may be spread with softened fat, or dipped in melted
fat, and browned in the oven or broiling oven.
Instead of spreading the mush with fat, the slices may be dipped in
cracker or fine dried bread crumbs, then dipped into egg mixture--1 egg
beaten and diluted with 1 tablespoonful of water--and again dipped into
cracker or bread crumbs. Place the "breaded slices" in a dripping pan, put
fat in bits over the top and bake for about half a hour or until the
crumbs are brown.
Hot mush may be served plain or with sirup.
In the same way, left-over wheatena, cream of wheat, farina, and other
breakfast cereals may be molded, cooled, and then "fried" or baked.
FRENCH TOAST
1 or 2 eggs
1 cupful milk
1/4 teaspoonful salt
6 or 8 slices of stale bread
Beat the eggs slightly, add the salt and milk, and dip the bread in the
mixture. Heat a griddle or "frying" pan and place a little butter or
substitute, or a combination of butter and some other fat, in the pan.
Brown the bread on one side in the hot fat. Place a bit of fat on the top
of each slice, turn, and brown the other side. Serve hot. A mixture of
powdered sugar and cinnamon, or sirup is sometimes used in serving French
Toast.
SIRUP
1/2 cupful corn sirup (dark)
1/4 cupful boiling water
2 tablespoonfuls brown sugar
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the corn sirup, sugar, water, and salt. Heat until the boiling point
is reached. Cool and then add the vanilla. If it is desired to serve the
sirup hot, its flavor is improved by the addition of 1 teaspoonful of
butter.
QUESTIONS
In preparing French Toast, what care must be taken in dipping the stale
bread in the milk and egg mixture?
Since it is desirable to serve the slices of toast whole, which are the
better for French Toast,--large or small pieces of bread?
What is the advantage of placing a bit of fat on each slice of bread just
before turning it?
Why is it advisable to add butter to the sirup only when the latter is to
be served hot?
What is the purpose of adding sugar to corn sirup? (See _Corn
Sirup_.)
LESSON XXIV
POWDERED CEREALS USED FOR THICKENING
EXPERIMENT 22: STARCH GRAINS AND BOILING WATER.--Pour 2 tablespoonfuls of
boiling water over 1 teaspoonful of flour. Stir and heat over the flame.
Is the mixture smooth? Examine the center of a "Jump." How does it compare
with uncooked starch? Are all the starch grains swelled and semisoluble?
EXPERIMENT 23: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH COLD WATER.--Mix 1
teaspoonful of flour with 1 teaspoonful of water. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of
boiling water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain clearly the
use of cold water in this mixture.
EXPERIMENT 24: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH SUGAR.--Mix 1 teaspoonful
of flour with 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Add 2 table-spoonfuls of boiling
water, stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Carefully explain the use of
sugar in the mixture.
EXPERIMENT 25: SEPARATION OF STARCH GRAINS WITH FAT.--Mix 1 teaspoonful of
flour with 1 teaspoonful of fat. Add 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water,
stir, and heat. Is the mixture smooth? Explain the use of fat in this
mixture.
To cook starch successfully, it is necessary to swell every grain of
starch contained in the starchy food. To accomplish this each grain must
be surrounded by heat and moisture. In vegetables and cereals, the
cellular framework separates the starch grains so that they are uniformly
cooked. Since there is nothing to separate the grains in a powdered
starchy substance, as shown in the foregoing experiments, it becomes
necessary to mix it with certain materials so that the heat and moisture
can penetrate every grain at the same time.
BLANC MANGE
2 cupfuls milk
1/4 cupful corn-starch
1/2 cupful sugar
2 teaspoonfuls vanilla
Nutmeg
1/8 teaspoonful salt
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar and corn-starch. Add the
hot milk slowly to the sugar and corn-starch mixture, stirring rapidly.
Return to the double boiler and cook 30 minutes, stir rapidly until the
mixture thickens. Add the salt and flavoring and pour into a mold which
has been moistened with cold water. Cool, turn from the mold, and serve
with sugar and cream.
If a softer and more creamy dessert is desired, the corn-starch may be
reduced to 3 tablespoonfuls. If this quantity of thickening is used, the
cooked dessert should be poured into sherbet glasses or other suitable
dishes for serving; it will not become stiff enough to mold.
NOTE.--While cooking Blanc Mange, note the number of minutes that is
required to thicken the mixture and the length of time of cooking given in
the recipe. Why is it necessary to cook the mixture for so long a time
after it thickens? (See _Cereals_.)
CHOCOLATE CORN-STARCH PUDDING
Proceed as for Blanc Mange, using 3/8 cupful of sugar instead of 1/4
cupful. Cut into pieces 1 square (_i.e._ 1 ounce) of Baker's
chocolate. Add to it 1/4 cupful of boiling water. Stir and heat until
smooth and thoroughly blended. Add this to the corn-starch mixture just
before taking from the fire. Add 1/2 teaspoonful of vanilla. Mold and
serve as Blanc Mange.
Note that the quantity of sugar is increased when chocolate is added to
the corn-starch mixture. Chocolate mixtures require considerable sugar to
make them tasty.
3 tablespoonfuls of cocoa may be substituted for the chocolate. When this
is done, mix the cocoa with the corn-starch and sugar and add no water to
it. Proceed as in making plain Blanc Mange.
QUESTIONS
Name three substances that can be used to prevent the lumping of powdered
cereals used for thickening.
Give the reason for mixing the sugar, corn-starch, and hot milk of Blanc
Mange as directed.
For how long a time after placing in the double boiler is it necessary to
stir the corn-starch, sugar, and hot milk mixture?
Milk, especially a milk and starchy mixture, scorches readily (see
_Scalding Milk_). From this explain why Blanc Mange is cooked
entirely over boiling water, and not over the flame and then in a double
boiler, as cereals.
Why is the flavoring not added while the mixture is cooking (see
_Flavoring Extracts_)?
What is the price per package of corn-starch?
How much does a package of corn-starch weigh and measure?
Which material--flour or corn-starch--is the cheaper to use for
thickening?
How many persons does the quantity of Blanc Mange above serve?
LESSON XXV
TOAST: DIGESTION OF STARCH
EXPERIMENT 26: CHANGE OF STARCH INTO DEXTRIN.--Place a teaspoonful of
flour in a frying pan and heat slowly until it becomes _very dark
brown_ and _uniform_ in color. Put a little of the browned flour
into a test tube, add water, then shake. Add a few drops of iodine. What
indicates the presence of starch? Is starch present?
The starch has been changed to dextrin. Dextrin gives a purple (reddish
blue) color when treated with iodine.
EXPERIMENT 27: THE SOLUBILITY OF DEXTRIN.--Pour the remainder of the
browned flour from Experiment 26 into a test tube. Add water and shake.
Pour through filter paper [Footnote 26: Liquids pass through filter paper,
but solids do not. Hence if a mixture of solid and liquid is poured upon
filter paper, the liquid passes through, but the solid remains on the
paper.] into another test tube (see Figure 30). Notice the color of the
liquid that has been filtered. Add a few drops of iodine to the filtered
liquid. Is dextrin present? Is dextrin soluble in water? [Illustration:
Figure 30.--Method of Folding Filter Paper.]
From these experiments, we find that dry heat has changed insoluble starch
into a soluble substance called _dextrin_. Dextrin is found in small
amounts in the crust of bread and in toast.
DIGESTION OF STARCH.--It was found in a previous lesson (Lesson XVI) that
sugar is entirely soluble in water, and since digestion and solution are
closely related, the digestion of some sugar is simple. Starch was found
to be insoluble in cold water and only semi-soluble in hot water. In the
process of digestion it would seem that some change must take place in the
starch to make it soluble. Such a change _does_ take place; starch is
changed into a soluble carbohydrate or a sugar before it is digested.
Substances called _enzymes_ which are in the saliva of the mouth
[Footnote 27: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in the mouth
and intestines, respectively.] and in the digestive juices of the
intestines [Footnote 28: Ptyalin and amylopsin are the ferments found in
the mouth and intestines, respectively.] cause this change. To show that
this change takes place to some extent in the mouth, try the following
experiments:
EXPERIMENT 28: STARCH IN CRACKER.--Test a bit of cracker with iodine for
starch. What indicates the presence of starch? Does the cracker contain
starch?
EXPERIMENT 29: ACTION OF SALIVA UPON STARCH.--Thoroughly chew a bit of
cracker. As you chew the cracker, note that it becomes sweeter in flavor.
Remove from the mouth, and place upon a piece of paper. Test it with
iodine. A purple (reddish blue) color indicates a soluble carbohydrate
(see Experiment 27). What substance does the masticated cracker contain?
Explain the change that has taken place in the cracker by mastication.
TOAST.--Bread is properly toasted when it is dried out thoroughly and then
browned on the outside. Both the crumb and the crust of the toast are thus
made crisp. Crisp toast crumbles during mastication.
Fresh bread contains much moisture. When it is toasted quickly, the
moisture is inclosed in the interior of the slice and the resulting toast
is very soft. This kind of toast is almost as difficult to digest as fresh
bread. Instead of toast breaking into bits during digestion, it remains in
a solid mass and is digested with difficulty.
Give at least two practical methods of toasting bread to produce the
desired kind of toast.
CREAM TOAST
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls milk or cream
6 to 8 slices of toast
Heat the fat; when it bubbles, add the flour and salt, mixing thoroughly.
Add a small portion of the milk. Heat and stir continually until it
thickens. Add another portion of the milk and proceed as before. Continue
until all the milk has been added. The sauce is sufficiently cooked when
it reaches the boiling point after the last quantity of milk has been
added. Pour this sauce over dry or moist toast.
_Moist toast_ is prepared by dipping dry toast quickly into hot,
salted water or hot milk. If the crust has not been cut from bread for
toasting, only the outer edges of the toast may be moistened.
The flavor of butter in Cream Toast is pleasing. To secure some butter
flavor and at the same time economize, a combination of butter and a mild
flavored fat or oil may be used.
QUESTIONS
Give the reason for mixing flour and fat as directed in White Sauce (see
Experiment 25).
What is the proportion of fat and flour? What is the proportion of flour
and liquid? Using this proportion, how much flour should be used for one
cupful of liquid?
What is the use of flour in White Sauce?
Note the consistency of the sauce, and keep it in mind as a standard of
comparison for the thickness of other sauces.
What should be the condition of the crumb of toast to be most quickly
digested? Give reasons for your answer.
LESSON XXVI
ROOT VEGETABLES (A)
Plant Roots.--Plants used for food have their stored-up food largely in
the form of starch and to some extent in the form of sugar. The parts of
the plant underneath the ground as well as the seeds serve as a storehouse
for the plant. All roots and tubers contain carbohydrates, although not in
so large a proportion as cereals. Those most commonly used as foods are
potatoes, tapioca, parsnips, carrots, beets, and turnips. Potatoes and
tapioca contain the most starch in this group. Parsnips, carrots, and
beets contain a little starch and much sugar. Turnips contain much
cellulose. Carrots, parsnips, and beets are also rich in cellulose.
All root vegetables as well as leaf and stem vegetables contain ash.
Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with or without the Skins, and in Water or
in Steam [Footnote 29: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--This lesson can be conducted
most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of six and having
each group clean, prepare, and cook in water and in steam, potatoes and
carrots as directed above.]--Clean, prepare, and cook in water pared and
unpared potatoes, scraped and unscraped carrots, and cook in steam pared
potatoes and scraped carrots.
Clean the vegetables by scrubbing with a brush; cook them in _gently
boiling_ water. Use the same quantity of water in each case (when
cooked in water) and add one teaspoonful of salt to each quart of water.
When the vegetables are tender (test with a fork or knitting needle),
drain each thoroughly, catching the water in a bowl. Dry each vegetable by
shaking the saucepan containing it over a flame.
Pour into a test tube a little of the water from each water-cooked
vegetable; cool, and then test with iodine for starch.
Also pour some of the water from each water-cooked vegetable in an
evaporating dish. Boil the water until the moisture is entirely
evaporated. Then continue to heat the contents of the dish until charred
material appears and then disappears. Is any solid material left? If so,
it is mineral matter.
Which vegetables,--those cooked (in water) with or without the skins,--
lose the more starch and ash?
Which vegetables without the skins,--those cooked in water or those cooked
in steam,--lose the more starch and ash?
As far as saving nutriment is concerned, which method of preparation is
better for vegetables cooked in water? Which method of cooking is better
for vegetables without the skins?
Peel the vegetables that were cooked with the skins. Cut all into dice.
Prepare about half as much _White Sauce_ as you have of the
vegetable, using the ingredients for the sauce in the following
proportion:
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1 cupful liquid
For the _liquid_ of the sauce for those vegetables cooked in water
without the skins, use half milk and half vegetable stock. Use only milk
for the sauce for the vegetables cooked in water with the skins and for
steamed vegetables. (For method of making White Sauce, see _Cream
Toast_) Add the vegetables to the sauce, reheat, and serve. Divide the
vegetables among the pupils of each group so that each tastes the six
vegetables.
Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing color?
Which vegetables,--those cooked with or without the skins,--have the more
pleasing flavor?
As far as appearance and flavor are concerned, which method of preparation
is better for potatoes? Which method for carrots?
As far as both nutriment and flavor are concerned, which method of cooking
is better for both vegetables?
Suggestions for Cooking Root Vegetables.--All vegetables growing beneath
the ground should be cleaned by scrubbing with a small brush. Unless a
vegetable is dried or wilted, it should not be soaked in water for any
length of time before cooking.
The comparison just made shows that the outside skins of vegetables should
not be removed before cooking in water if we wish to retain all the
nutriment. There are some who contend, however, that a more delicate and
pleasing flavor results when old and strong-flavored vegetables have their
skins removed before cooking, and that the flavor is more to be desired
than a saving of all nutrients. Often vegetables are more pleasing in
color when cooked without their skins.
The nutrients lost by paring root vegetables and cooking them in water
consist not only of carbohydrates, but of ash and other valuable
materials. [Footnote 30: _Vitamines_, see Division Seven]
Satisfactory results may be obtained by _baking_ or _steaming_
vegetables. By using the latter method, vegetables can be pared and cut
into pieces and then cooked with little loss of nutrients. It has been
pointed out, [Footnote 31: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI (May,
1919), "Changes in the Food Value of Vegetables," by Minna C. Denton.]
however, that there may be considerable loss of nutrients in steamed
vegetables. The extent of the loss depends in part upon the type of
steamer and the method of using it. If the bottom of the upper pan of a
steamer is perforated and the vegetables are placed in contact with the
perforated portion, the condensed steam "washes" the mineral matter from
the vegetable. This "vegetable broth" then drops into the lower pan of the
steamer.
An evidence of this can be secured by steaming spinach or squash in the
manner described above and observing the coloring which appears in the
water beneath the steaming vegetable. Loss of nutrients in such a steamer
can be avoided by placing the vegetable in a pan or plate and inserting
the latter in the upper portion of the steamer. The pan or plate should,
of course, be of smaller diameter than the top of the steamer. By using
the type of steamer which has perforations at the top of the upper pan
(see Figure 31), no loss of nutrients occurs, provided the accumulated
vegetable broth is used.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Geo H Bowman Co_ FIGURE 31.--UTENSIL FOR
STEAMING--A "STEAMER"]
Care should also be taken not to steam vegetables for long periods at a
very high temperature as is sometimes done in using the pressure cooker.
This results in both loss of nutrients and flavor.
If starchy vegetables are cooked in water, when tender immediately drain
away the water and dry them. Serve at once or let them remain uncovered in
a warm place. The steam is thus allowed to escape. Condensed steam makes
starchy vegetables soggy.
BOILED POTATOES
If potatoes are to be cooked without their skins, pare them as thin as
possible, or in the case of new potatoes, scrape them. Cut away any green
portion [Footnote 32: Green spots on potatoes are caused by the tubers
growing too near the surface of the ground. This colored portion contains
an injurious substance called solanin.] which appears on the potato. If
the potatoes are sprouted, [Footnote 33: Sprouted potatoes also contain
some solanin. Potatoes should not be allowed to sprout since nutritious
material is used up by the growing sprouts and, as mentioned above, an
injurious material is formed. Potatoes can be prevented from sprouting by
storing them in a dry, dark, cool place.] also cut away the portion around
the sprouts.
In cooking potatoes in water, follow the directions given on page 59,
Cooking Vegetables in Water. When they are tender, drain off the water
immediately; shake gently and dry on the back of the range with the
saucepan uncovered or with a cloth folded over the top to absorb the
moisture. Sprinkle generously with salt. Boiled potatoes may be put
through a ricer before serving.
CREAMED AND SCALLOPED VEGETABLES.--Cooked vegetables may be creamed by
cutting them into cubes, adding White Sauce, and then reheating. If the
cut vegetables are cold, they can be heated by adding them to the sauce
with the last portion of liquid. By the time the sauce reaches the boiling
point, the vegetables will be heated. Care should be taken not to break
the vegetables while heating them in the sauce. Care should also be taken
to prevent the sauce from scorching. An asbestos mat over a gas burner is
desirable for this purpose. Use one part of White Sauce with 2 or 3 parts
of diced vegetables.
Vegetables may be scalloped by placing Creamed Vegetables in an oiled
baking-dish, covering with buttered crumbs, and browning in the oven.
WHITE SAUCE FOR VEGETABLES
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
_or_
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1/2 teaspoonful salt
White pepper
1/2 cupful milk
1/2 cupful vegetable stock
Cook as directed for Cream Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). The thickness
of White Sauce for vegetables depends upon the kind of vegetable. The
thinner sauce is generally more satisfactory with starchy vegetables.
CRUMBS FOR SCALLOPED DISHES
1 cupful soft bread crumbs
1/8 teaspoonful salt
White pepper or cayenne
1 tablespoonful butter or substitute
Mix seasonings and crumbs together, then add to the melted fat, or place
the fat in bits over the seasoned crumbs.
QUESTIONS
How should the water boil in cooking vegetables? Why?
Why should not potatoes be covered with a tin lid or plate after cooking?
Are potatoes sold by the pound or bushel? What is the price per pound or
bushel?
Mention at least three ways of cooking root vegetables so as to retain
their nutriment.
LESSON XXVII
ROOT VEGETABLES (B)
EXPERIMENT 30: THE EFFECT OF SOAKING STARCHY VEGETABLES IN WATER,--Over
several pieces of potato pour enough water to cover. Allow the vegetable
to stand at least 15 minutes. Pour the water from the vegetable into a
test tube and heat it. Cool, then test the water with iodine. What does
the water contain? What conclusion can you draw concerning the soaking of
vegetables in water before cooking?
SWEET POTATOES
Cook sweet potatoes with or without the skins (see _Cooking Vegetables
in Water_). Peel (if cooked with the skins), mash, add a little hot
milk, salt, and butter, beat thoroughly and serve.
Cooked sweet potatoes may also be cut into halves lengthwise, spread with
butter or substitute, sprinkled with a very little sugar, and browned in
the oven.
SWEET POTATOES (Southern style)
3 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
6 sweet potatoes
Salt and pepper
Boiling water
Scrub and pare the sweet potatoes, cut them into halves lengthwise. Put
the butter and sugar in a frying pan and when hot, add the sweet potatoes.
Brown the potatoes, add the salt and pepper and enough boiling water to
cover the bottom of the frying pan. Cover and cook slowly until the
potatoes are tender. Nearly all the water should be evaporated when the
potatoes are cooked. That which remains should be poured over the potatoes
as a sauce for serving.
Sweet potatoes may also be cooked in a casserole in the oven. Uncover the
casserole when the potatoes are almost tender, in order to brown them.
MOCK OYSTERS (parsnips with nuts and rice)
4 parsnips
2 eggs
1 cupful nuts, chopped
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
1 cupful cooked rice [Footnote 34: If the rice is cooked by boiling, use
the rice water instead of plain water in making Tomato Sauce.]
4 tablespoonfuls flour
1 teaspoonful salt
Boil or steam the parsnips until tender. Press them through a coarse sieve
or colander. Add the beaten eggs. Then add the remainder of the
ingredients. If the mixture is too thick to drop from the spoon, add a
little milk. Drop by tablespoonfuls on to an oiled baking-sheet. Bake
until slightly brown. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce. Tomato Catsup or Celery
Sauce may also be used in serving Mock Oysters. (Adapted from _Ninety
Tested Recipes_, Teachers College.)
TOMATO SAUCE
1/2 can tomatoes
1 cupful water
2 cloves
3 allspice berries
3 peppercorns
2 sprays of parsley
3 tablespoonfuls fat
2 slices onion
1/4 cupful flour
1 teaspoonful salt
Allow tomatoes, water, spices, and herbs to simmer 15 to 20 minutes. Brown
the onion in the fat, add flour and salt, then the tomato mixture. Follow
the method of making White Sauce (see _Cream Toast_). Strain and
serve.
QUESTIONS
From the results of Experiment 30 explain why vegetables should be placed
in boiling rather than in cold water for cooking.
Why should the water be drained from boiled vegetables immediately after
cooking?
From your grocer, find out in what quantities sweet potatoes are usually
purchased. What is the price of them? How do they compare in price with
white potatoes?
What is the price per pound of parsnips?
In preparing Tomato Sauce, what is the purpose of cooking the tomatoes and
spices together for 15 or 20 minutes?
Why are the tomatoes strained after thickening rather than before?
LESSON XXVIII
ROOT VEGETABLES (C)
Tapioca is a food material prepared from the roots of the cassava plant
grown in South America. Like many other foods prepared from the roots of
plants, it consists of a large percent of starch. In its preparation,
tapioca is heated so that the starch is partially cooked. Tapioca is
prepared for the market in two forms,--pearl tapioca, and minute or
granulated tapioca. The latter requires a much shorter time to cook. If
granulated tapioca is substituted for pearl tapioca, but one half the
quantity is required.
APPLE TAPIOCA
3/4 cupful pearl tapioca or
3/4 cupful granulated tapioca
2 1/2 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 teaspoonful salt
6 apples
1/2 cupful sugar
If pearl tapioca is used, cover it generously with cold water and allow it
to stand one hour or overnight. While soaking keep the tapioca covered. If
any water is unabsorbed, do not discard it,--use less than the given
quantity of boiling water.
If granulated tapioca is used, no cold water is needed. For either
granulated or pearl tapioca, add the boiling water and salt to the tapioca
and cook over the naked flame and then over hot water as in the case of
breakfast cereal (see _General Rules for Cooking Cereals_). Cook in
the double boiler until transparent. Wash, core, and pare the apples;
place them in a buttered baking-dish; fill the cavities with sugar, pour
tapioca over them, and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft.
Serve with sugar and cream, or with Lemon Sauce.
Other fruits may be substituted for apples. If canned fruits are used,
substitute the fruit sirup for part of the water in which the tapioca is
cooked.
RHUBARB TAPIOCA
Use the same ingredients for the rhubarb dessert as for Apple Tapioca,
substituting for the apples 3 cupfuls of rhubarb, cut into pieces, and
using twice the quantity of sugar. Bake until the rhubarb is soft.
LEMON SAUCE
3/4 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
2 cupfuls boiling water
1 lemon,--juice and rind
1 tablespoonful butter
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly; then slowly add the boiling water. Cook 10
minutes. Add the lemon juice and rind, then the butter. Stir until the
butter is melted, when the sauce will be ready to serve.
For economy, the butter may be omitted. It adds to the flavor, however.
SWEET SAUCES.--Sweet Sauces usually contain sugar and butter and are
thickened with a powdered cereal. It is interesting to consider which of
the two materials--sugar or butter--should be used to separate the grains
of the flour or corn-starch.
The quantity of fat used with the flour of White Sauces (see below) is a
little less than that of the flour. It is difficult to separate starch
grains when the quantity of fat equals only one half the quantity of
flour. On the other hand, when starch grains are separated by means of
sugar, the quantity of the sugar should equal at least the quantity of the
starchy material (see _Blanc Mange_). In the recipe for Lemon Sauce
above, it will be noted that the quantity of fat is one half that of the
flour; the quantity of sugar greatly exceeds that of the flour. Hence the
sugar affords a more satisfactory means of separating the starch grains in
Lemon Sauce.
PROPORTIONS OF INGREDIENTS FOR SAUCES
Flour Fat Liquid
Thin White Sauce 1 tablespoonful, 3/4 tablespoonful, 1 cup (Toast,
sweet sauce, certain cream soups, etc.)
Medium White Sauce 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 1/2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Vegetables (see page 109), gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Thick White Sauce 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Gravy, tomato sauce, etc.)
Very Thick White Sauce 4 tablespoonfuls, 3 tablespoonfuls, 1 cup
(Croquettes, etc.)
(If richer sauces are desired, equal quantities of fat and flour should be
used.)
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of soaking pearl tapioca in water before cooking? Give
the reason for covering pearl tapioca while it is soaking. Why is it
necessary to cook it in a double boiler?
What is the use of flour in Lemon Sauce? Why is the flour mixed with the
sugar before adding the boiling water (see Experiment 24)? How long does
it take the flour to thicken? How long a time does the recipe give for
cooking the flour mixture? What is the purpose of cooking it for so long a
time?
What precautions can be taken to prevent the sauce from scorching?
If, after cooking the required length of time, the sauce is not thick
enough, what is the simplest method of thickening it?
For a sauce recipe in which very little fat and no sugar are given, devise
a method of preparing _smooth_ sauce.
LESSON XXIX
STARCHY FOODS COOKED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE
STEAM UNDER PRESSURE.--Which is hotter,--the "steam" (_i.e._ water
vapor) coming from boiling water in an uncovered saucepan or teakettle or
the "steam" which has been held underneath the lid of a covered saucepan
or teakettle (see Figure 32)? Steam confined in a small space or held
under pressure may reach a temperature higher than that of boiling water.
EFFECT OF HIGH TEMPERATURE UPON POP CORN AND POTATOES.--Pop corn contains
water. When heated, the water changes to steam. The covering of cellulose
holds the steam in the kernel. When the steam expands and reaches a
temperature far above the boiling point of water, it finally bursts the
covering and the starch swells at once.
[Illustration: FIGURE 32.--"STEAM" WITHOUT PRESSURE AND "STEAM" WHICH HAS
BEEN UNDER PRESSURE.]
In baking potatoes, the water contained in them vaporizes. The vaporized
water or steam is held under pressure by the skin of the vegetable. The
steam thus becomes hotter than boiling water, hence a baked potato is
cooked at a higher temperature than a boiled potato, and no nutrients are
lost.
POP CORN
Moisten pop corn with cold water. Almost cover the bottom of a popper with
the kernels. Hold the popper first at some distance from the heat and then
gradually bring it closer, shaking it well all the time to keep the corn
from burning. The corn should not begin to pop before three and one half
minutes. When popping commences, most of the kernels should open. If there
is some time between the popping of the first and last kernels, the corn
will become tough.
BUTTERED POP CORN NO. I
4 quarts freshly popped corn
1/4 cupful butter
Salt
Melt the butter and pour it over the corn, stirring with a spoon. Sprinkle
at once with salt from a salt shaker, continue stirring.
BUTTERED POP CORN NO. II
1 tablespoonful butter and 1 tablespoonful oil _or_
2 tablespoonfuls oil
1/2 cupful shelled pop corn
Salt
Put the fat in a large frying pan; when melted, add the salted corn. Stir
until the corn is evenly coated with fat. Cover closely and heat
gradually, shaking the pan vigorously all the time.
BAKED POTATOES Scrub potatoes and place them on the grate of a _hot_
oven (500 degrees F.). (Potatoes should be baked in a _hot_ oven, to
prevent them from becoming waxy or soggy.) Bake until soft when tested
with a fork or knitting needle, usually 50 to 60 minutes. Break the skin
at once to allow the steam to escape, or make two gashes in the top of
each potato, one at right angles to the other. Gently press the potato so
that the steam may escape. Serve in an uncovered dish. Place the steaming
potatoes on a folded napkin for serving.
STUFFED POTATOES
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 teaspoonful salt
3 tablespoonfuls milk
Pepper
6 baked potatoes
Cut the baked potatoes in halves lengthwise. Remove the inside, taking
care not to break the skin; mash the potatoes, add the milk, butter, and
seasoning, and beat them as ordinary mashed potatoes. Return the mixture
to the potato shells, place the stuffed potatoes in a pan, and bake in a
_hot_ oven (500 degrees F.) until brown.
Before browning the stuffed potatoes, grated cheese may be sprinkled over
them.
QUESTIONS
Explain why pop corn can be cooked thoroughly in about 5 minutes while
rolled oats or wheat requires 1 1/2 hours for sufficient cooking.
Analyze the difference in taste of a baked and a boiled potato. To what is
the sweet taste of a baked potato due (see Experiment 26)? Explain fully
why baked potatoes are more easily digested than boiled potatoes (see
Experiment 26 and _Solution and Digestion_).
Which contains more nutriment,--baked potatoes or boiled potatoes? Explain
(see _Comparison of Vegetables Cooked with and without the Skins, and in
Water or in Steam_).
What is the purpose of breaking the skins of potatoes _at once_ after
baking? Why are baked potatoes served in an uncovered dish? What could be
used to cover them?
RELATED WORK
LESSON XXX
DINING ROOM SERVICE [Footnote 35: NOTE.--See Suggestions for Teaching,
Appendix.]
BASIC PRINCIPLES.--Practically all rules for laying the table and all
methods of serving have been formulated to bring about neatness,
convenience, and order. The standard of living, [Footnote 36: NOTE.--See
Suggestions for Teaching, Appendix.] the occasion, the size of the dining
room, the number of guests, and the attendants, all have to be taken into
consideration in dining room service. Therefore the method of serving must
be governed by conditions. It is possible here to give only general
suggestions.
THE TABLE
TABLE LINEN.--Table padding, or a silence cloth, should first be placed on
the table, then the table-cloth should be laid straight and smooth.
[Illustration: FIGURE 33.--TABLE LAID FOR AN INFORMAL LUNCHEON Note the
position of the silver, napkins, bread-and-butter plates, and tumblers.
Also note that a _low_ bowl of flowers is used as a centerpiece.]
Napkins should be folded simply and laid at the left of the plate. A
dinner napkin is folded four times, a luncheon napkin is folded twice to
form a square, or three times to form either a triangle or an oblong.
If desired, the table-cloth may be omitted for breakfast or luncheon.
Doilies with pads underneath them, lunch or breakfast cloths, or table
runners (see Figure 33) may be used instead of the table-cloth. The two
latter coverings are especially practical, since they are more quickly
laundered than table-cloths. Their initial cost is also usually less than
that of a table-cloth.
Doilies may be placed on the serving tray. They are also often used on
plates containing crackers, bread, and cakes. Baked potatoes, corn, and
hot breads may be served in a folded napkin.
CHINA AND GLASSWARE.--The term "cover" means the space, with its china,
silver, and glassware, allowed for each guest. At least twenty-two inches
of space should be allowed for a cover (see Figure 33).
The quantity of china on the table depends upon the occasion and the style
of serving. In any form of service, the first course, if cold, may be
placed on the table before the guests are seated. If the first course is a
hot food, it is always placed on the table after the guests are seated.
For informal occasions, and sometimes for formal occasions, the bread-and-
butter plate is used. It is placed beyond the tines of the fork. Glasses
are placed beyond the tip of the knife. A sugar bowl and cream pitcher,
salts, peppers, etc., may also be placed on the table. A salt and a pepper
shaker should be placed so as to be accessible to each two covers. Dishes
containing olives or nuts are sometimes placed on the table before the
guests are seated.
For breakfast, the coffeepot, hot-water pitcher, milk and cream pitchers,
spoon tray, and cups and saucers may be placed so as to form a semicircle
about the hostess's place. The coffeepot should be placed at the right,
and the cups and saucers at the left. If tiles or stands for the coffeepot
and hot-water pitcher are used, they should also be a part of the table
service. A large tray may be used to hold all of the coffee service.
If the serving is to be done without a maid, it is advisable to place all
the china, glass, and silver to be used for the meal either on the table
or on the serving table.
SILVER.--Convenience and order have determined the customary way of
placing the silver at each cover. At the right of the plates place the
knives, the spoons, and the forks that are to be used without knives (as
for oysters, fish, or salad). At the left, place all the forks that are to
be used with knives. Many prefer, however, to place all the forks, except
the oyster fork, at the left of the plate. Enough silver for all courses,
except the dessert course, is usually placed on the table; it is
permissible, however, to place the silver for all courses. If the silver
for any course is not placed on the table before the meal is announced, it
may be brought in on a tray and placed at each cover just before serving
the course; or it may be laid on each serving dish of the course.
While a general rule for laying silver is to place each piece at each
cover in the order of its use, _the knives are usually all grouped
together at the right of the plate and the spoons laid together at the
right of the knives._ It is advisable, however, to place the spoons and
knives in the order of their use, _i.e._ place the spoon that is to
be used first farthest to the right and the knife that is to be used
first, farthest to the right of the group of knives. Since only forks are
placed at the left of the plate, they should be laid in the order of their
use, that first to be used being placed farthest to the left (see Figure
33).
All silver should be placed from one half to one inch from the edge of the
table; the sharp edges of the blades of the knives should be turned
towards the plates; the spoons and forks should be placed with their bowls
and tines turned up. The butter spreaders may be laid across the bread-
and-butter plates. Generally when soup and raw oysters are served, the
oyster fork is laid across the soup spoon. If the silver that is to be
used in serving a dish of food is placed on the table, it should be laid
_beside_ not _in_ the dish of food.
TABLE ACCESSORIES.--A low bowl of flowers or fruit, tastefully arranged,
makes a pleasing centerpiece. A centerpiece, however, should be a real
source of pleasure; it should not obstruct the view of guests opposite
(see Figure 33).
Place cards afford a graceful means of seating guests. When used, they
should be placed on the napkin. Menu cards, sometimes used for occasional
dinners, are also placed on the napkin.
STYLES OF SERVING
There are several styles of serving:
ENGLISH (ordinary family service).--The foods are served at the table, the
host serving fish, meat, and vegetables; the hostess serving soup, salad,
and dessert; and other members of the family serving fruit and the
vegetables that are served in individual dishes. The served dishes may be
passed to each guest by the maid, or when no maid serves, they may be
passed from one person to another. This method is used for family and
informal service, and also when serving is done without a maid.
RUSSIAN (serving from the side).--This may be observed in one of two ways:
(_a_) Foods are separated into portions on individual plates and
placed before the guests.
(_b_) Foods are separated into portions on the serving dishes and
passed to the left of each guest so that he may help himself, or the
portions may be served by the maid. The necessary serving spoon or fork
should be provided with the serving dishes. The Russian style of serving
is the most formal and requires the service of at least one maid.
COMPROMISE.--Sometimes it is desirable to use one style of serving for one
course and another style for another course, as the Russian style for the
soup course, and the English style for the meat course. Or the foods of
one course may be in such form that it is convenient to follow both styles
of serving, as meat served in English style and "side dishes" served in
Russian style. Such style of serving is termed the compromise.
METHODS OF SERVING WITH A MAID
ESTABLISHED RULES FOR SERVING.--While each hostess follows her own
inclination in the details of serving, there are certain rules that are
always observed:
Cold foods are served on cold dishes; hot foods on hot dishes.
Dishes offered to a guest are _passed_ to the left of the guest;
other dishes are _placed_ to the right of a guest, except when a
plate is placed at the same time a soiled or served plate is removed,--it
is then placed at the left. Plates are removed from the right when
possible.
When the Russian style of serving is observed, the following plan of
removing and placing plates at the close of a course is followed:
The maid carries the clean or served plate of the following course in her
right hand and goes to the left of the guest. She removes the soiled plate
of the course just concluded with her left hand and then places the empty
or served plate before the guest with her right hand. She then goes to the
kitchen or pantry with the soiled plate, returns with a clean or served
plate, and proceeds as before.
In following the English style in serving plates, the maid first places
the dish to be served (the platter of meat, for example) in front of the
host. Then an empty plate is placed before the host. The maid then gets
another clean plate, returns to the left of the host, takes up the served
plate in her left hand, and places the empty plate before him. She then
places the served plate before one of the guests from the right side.
Again she goes to the left of the host, places a plate before him, and
proceeds as before.
At the end of a course, remove the dishes of each cover, then such dishes
as the platters and tureens, and finally the crumbs. All dishes belonging
to a particular course should be removed at the end of that course. Soiled
dishes are always unsightly; hence care should be taken to remove them in
the neatest way. Plates should not be piled on top of one another. When
the dinner plate, the bread-and-butter plate, and the side dishes are to
be removed, the smaller dishes (bread-and-butter plates and side dishes)
should be removed on the serving tray. The larger plates may be removed
one at a time, and an empty or service plate may be put in the place of
each. If no empty or service plate is to be placed for the next course,
two soiled plates may be removed at the same time, one in each hand.
USE OF THE BUFFET AND SERVING TABLE.--Many dining rooms have both a buffet
and serving table. When such is the case the serving table is used for
holding the dishes and foods that are used in serving the meal, such as
dessert plates, creamer and sugar, plate of bread, etc.; the buffet is
used for holding dishes that are used occasionally, such as the coffee
service, chafing dish, etc.
Accidents at the table may be quickly remedied, if extra silver and a soft
(_i.e._ unfolded) napkin are placed on the serving table before the
meal is announced.
USE OF THE SERVING TRAY.--The serving tray should be used for carrying all
silver. It should also be used for small dishes, such as preserves,
olives, sauces, and for the creamer and sugar, and the cups and saucers.
In passing large dishes, such as plates, platters, and tureens, use a
folded napkin underneath the dishes instead of a tray.
REMOVING THE CRUMBS FROM THE TABLE.--For a table with a cloth, the crumb
tray and scraper, or better, a plate and folded napkin are used to remove
the crumbs. A brush is not desirable for "crumbing" the table. For a table
without a cloth, the folded napkin and plate are used. The table may be
crumbed before and after the salad course or before the dessert course.
USE OF FINGER BOWLS.--Finger bowls are used after the fruit course of
breakfast, and at the end of a luncheon or dinner. They should be placed
on plates, with a doily between the plate and finger bowl.
For breakfast, the finger bowls and plates may be brought in first. The
finger bowl and doily should be removed to the left so that the same
plates may be used for the fruit course.
For formal luncheon or dinner, finger bowls on doilies and plates are
brought in, one at a time, when removing the main dish of the dessert. The
finger bowls and doilies are then set aside and the plate used for bonbons
and nuts, which are passed on a tray. Or, if desired, the finger bowls may
be brought after the bonbons. In this case the finger bowl and plate are
exchanged for the plate of the dessert course. An informal way is to pass
finger bowls on plates and doilies before the dessert course. Then the
finger bowl and doily are set aside as at breakfast and the dessert served
on the same plate.
ORDER OF SEATING AND SERVING GUESTS.--The host and hostess usually sit
opposite each other, _i.e._ at the head and foot of the table. If
there is a waitress to do the serving, the head of the table should be
farthest from the entrance of the dining room. If there is no maid, the
hostess's chair should be nearest the kitchen door or pantry. A woman
guest of honor sits at the right of the host; a gentleman guest, at the
right of the hostess.
The order of serving guests varies in different homes and for different
occasions. Sometimes the women at the table are served before the men.
This is usually done, however, for home service or when only a few persons
are at the table. At a large dinner table or a banquet, guests are usually
served in the order in which they sit. In many homes, the guests are
served first, while in others the hostess is always the first to be
served. At a family meal, when no guests are present, the hostess should
always be served first.
METHOD OF SERVING WITHOUT A MAID
When there is no maid, a woman has a threefold duty to perform when
serving a meal. She must act as cook, as waitress, and as hostess. Much
skill, ingenuity, and practice are required to do this successfully. The
underlying principle of its accomplishment is forethought. A hostess must
plan, even to the minutest detail, the performance of each duty.
PREPARATION BEFORE ANNOUNCING THE MEAL.--In planning the menu, a wise
selection should be made. Simple foods should be selected and but few
courses should be served. A young hostess should remember that a simple
meal easily served is more enjoyable and more fitting than an elaborate
dinner where the hostess must frequently leave the table. Foods should be
selected that can be prepared before the meal is served, and that will not
be harmed by standing. A souffle which must be served immediately when
taken from the oven is not a wise choice for such a meal.
For almost all meals some of the dishes and foods must be left in the
warming oven or in the refrigerator, but as many dishes and foods as
possible should be taken to the dining room before the meal is announced.
The suggestion has been made that dishes be kept warm by placing them in a
pan of hot water on the serving table. This would mean, however, that a
tea towel be at hand to dry the dishes before using. Special hot-water
dishes for the purpose can now be obtained in city shops.
A serving table or a wheel tray (see Figure 34) is of great service to a
woman acting as hostess and waitress. It should be placed near the hostess
so that she can reach it without rising from her chair. In the absence of
a wheel tray, a large serving tray is a great convenience in setting and
clearing the table; it saves many steps.
[Illustration: FIGURE 34--WHEEL TRAY.]
SERVING AT THE TABLE.--The English style of serving should be followed.
The hostess may thus have the aid of the host and the other members of the
family in serving. Moreover, serving in this manner gives an air of
hospitality.
As hostess, a woman must not leave her place at the table many times or
for many minutes. If the details of the meal have not been well planned,
she will have to make many trips to the kitchen. This is one of the
indications that the presence of guests is a burden to the hostess. She
should never leave or enter the dining room empty-handed, for a saving of
energy is more sensible than faithful adherence to form. The soiled
dishes, as they are removed from the table, may be placed upon the serving
table. By the use of the latter, the dining table can be kept free from an
overcrowded appearance and the hostess saved many steps. The lower shelf
of the serving table is the most desirable place for the soiled dishes.
For a family meal, the table may be crumbed as follows: Let the hostess
use the crumb tray while seated at her place, and then let her pass it on
so that each member of the family may in turn remove the crumbs from his
own cover. It is perfectly proper to omit crumbing when guests are present
and where there is no maid.
The host and the other members of the family can do much to add to the
pleasure of a meal by introducing an interesting topic of conversation
that will occupy the attention of the guests during the absence of the
hostess. If the hostess is sole entertainer, she would do well to start an
absorbing subject of conversation just before leaving the dining room.
QUESTIONS
Why is it desirable to use doilies on plates containing crackers, bread,
and cakes?
Why should baked potatoes, corn, and hot breads be served on a folded
napkin?
Why should the coffeepot be placed at the right of the hostess's cover and
the cups and saucers at the left of her cover?
In laying the table, why should the knives, spoons, and the forks that are
to be used without knives be placed at the right of the plates? Why should
the forks that are to be used with knives be placed at the left of the
plates?
In serving, why should dishes which admit of choice be passed to the left
of a guest? Why should dishes which do not admit of choice be placed at
the right?
Why should this order of clearing the table at the end of a course be
followed: first, the soiled dishes, then the food, then the clean dishes,
and finally the crumbs?
Why should all dishes belonging to a particular course be removed at the
end of the course?
Why is a brush not desirable for crumbing the table?
Why are finger bowls used after the fruit course of breakfast and at the
end of luncheon or dinner?
Make a list of the linen, silver, glass, and china needed for the dining
and serving tables, when serving the menu given below. Give method of
serving each course, using the English style.
Cream of Tomato Soup--Soup Sticks
Veal Cutlets
Rice
Rolls--Butter
Cucumber Salad
Wafers
Snow Pudding, Custard Sauce
Cakes--Coffee
LESSON XXXI
COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST
Cook and serve a breakfast.
If the lesson period is limited to 90 minutes, it is advisable to plan
only a simple meal. The following menu is suggested:
Seasonable Fruit,--fresh or cooked
French Toast with Sirup
Milk
Determine the number of persons each recipe for the foods above will
serve. It may be necessary to prepare only a portion of a given recipe or
more food than the quantity stated in the recipe. The pupil should become
accustomed to dividing or multiplying the quantities given in recipes.
Commence your work at such a time that the food will be in proper
condition--hot or cold--at the time set for serving the breakfast.
Follow the English or family style of serving.
Serve the breakfast with or without a maid (see previous lesson).
LESSON XXXII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Seasonable Fruit Sauce
Breakfast Cereal
Coffee
See Review, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON XXXIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 37: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If cooked cereals are desired for breakfast at
your home, prepare breakfast cereals in the evening for the following
morning.
Make a dessert for the evening meal at least three times a week.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To cook the cereal a sufficient length of time to produce a sweet
flavor and make it tender, to evaporate the moisture sufficiently so that
mastication will be necessary, to allow no scum to form on top.
(2) To select a variety of desserts so that a different one may be served
each time.
DIVISION FIVE
ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN FATS AND OILS
LESSON XXXIV
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM
COMPARISON OF FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES.--_Fat is a foodstuff._ Fat and
oil [Footnote 38: Fat and oil are very similar, oil being fat that is
liquid at ordinary temperature.] form another great class of energy-giving
or fuel foods. In the body, these foods, like carbohydrates, give energy;
in fact weight for weight they furnish more than twice as much energy as
carbohydrates. There is, for example, about as much fat by weight in one
pound of butter as there are carbohydrates in one pound of tapioca. By
measurement it has been found that one pound of butter gives to the body
almost two and one fourth times as much energy as does one pound of
tapioca.
Fats and oils are not only used as food (butter for example) and as
constituents of foods (fat in pastry), but as a medium for cooking. The
use of fat as a cooking medium follows:
EXPERIMENT 31: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH FATS AND OILS DECOMPOSE OR "BURN."--
Into each of 6 test tubes put 2 teaspoonfuls of butter, cottonseed oil,
corn oil, beef drippings, lard, and Crisco. Gently heat each one of the
fats or oils until fumes first arise from them. Then insert a thermometer
[Footnote 39: Care should be taken in using a thermometer in hot fat. It
should be allowed to cool before washing.] in each tube and note the
temperatures. These are the temperatures at which the various fats
decompose. Record these temperatures in your notebook.
How do the decomposing temperatures of fat compare with that of boiling
water? Which would be the hotter medium for cooking--hot fat or boiling
water?
Which fat reaches the highest temperature before it begins to decompose?
If fat is used as a medium of cooking, which of these fats, as far as
temperature is concerned, would be the most desirable? Give a reason for
your answer.
What is the price per pound or pint of each of these fats or oils?
Which of these are vegetable and which are animal fats or oils?
FATS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING.--As shown by the above experiment, fat reaches a
high temperature when heated. For this reason fat may be used as a cooking
medium. The process of cooking food in deep fat is called _frying_.
From the standpoint of temperature the best fat for frying is that which
can be heated to a very high temperature without burning.
Other factors such as flavor and cost, however, have to be taken into
consideration. Fat not only heats foods, but it imparts flavor since some
of the fat in which a food is cooked, clings to the food. The costs of the
various fats differ greatly. This must be regarded in selecting fats for
cooking. Taking these factors into consideration, many prefer the cheaper
vegetable fats for frying, while others find a mixture of beef drippings
and lard satisfactory.
EXPERIMENT 32: BREAD FRIED IN "COOL" FAT (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--Put some
suitable fat for frying in an iron pan and heat. Note carefully the change
that takes place in fat as it heats. When the fat "foams" or bubbles, or
reaches a temperature of about 300 degrees F., drop into it a piece of
bread. After one minute remove the bread from the fat; examine the bread
by breaking it apart to see if the fat has soaked into the bread. Is it
desirable to have the fat soak into fried foods? What conclusion can you
draw as to frying foods in "cool" fats?
EXPERIMENT 33: THE TEMPERATURE OF FAT FOR FRYING (CLASS EXPERIMENT).--
Continue to heat the fat of Experiment 32. When fumes begin to rise from
the fat, or the fat reaches a temperature of 365 degrees F., again drop a
bit of bread into it. After one minute remove the bread and examine it as
above. Has as much fat soaked into it as in the first bit of bread? What
conclusion can you draw from this in regard to the proper temperature for
frying foods?
Cooked foods and foods needing but little cooking require a higher
temperature than batters or other uncooked foods. If a bit of bread is
browned in 40 seconds, the fat is of proper temperature for cooked foods
and for oysters. If bread is browned in 60 seconds, the fat is of proper
temperature for uncooked foods.
GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING.--Since fat, when heated, reaches such a high
temperature, the kettle in which it is heated should be of iron.
If there is any moisture on foods, it must be evaporated before the foods
brown. Excessive moisture also cools the fat considerably, hence, _foods
that are to be fried should be as dry as possible._
Place the foods to be cooked in a bath of fat deep enough to float them.
The kettle should not be too full, however, as fat is apt to bubble over
especially when moist foods are placed in it.
Foods may be placed in a frying basket, or they may be lowered into the
fat and taken from it with a wire spoon. All fried foods should be drained
on paper.
When one quantity of food has been removed, the fat should be reheated and
its temperature tested before adding the second quantity of food.
Fat used for frying should be cooled and clarified with potato as directed
on the following page.
If a coal range is used for heating the fat, sand or ashes and a shovel
should be near at hand in case the fat takes fire.
If hot fat must be carried or lifted, wrap a towel about the hand before
grasping the handle of the kettle.
TO TRY OUT FAT.--The fat of meat consists of fat held by a network of
connective tissue. To make meat fat suitable for frying it is necessary to
separate the fat from the tissue. This is done as follows:
Remove the tough outside skin and lean parts from meat fat and cut it into
small pieces. Put the fat into an iron kettle, and cover it with cold
water. Place it uncovered on the stove and heat. When the water has nearly
all evaporated, set the kettle back, or lessen the heat, or place in a
"cool" oven, and let the fat slowly try out.
As the fat separates from the pieces of tissue, it is well to strain or
drain it into a bowl. If this is done, the fat is less apt to scorch. The
heating of the connective tissue should continue, until it is shriveled in
appearance and no fat can be pressed out from it with a fork. The strained
fat should be set aside to become firm and then stored in a cool place.
TO CLARIFY FAT.--Add a few slices of raw potato to fat and heat slowly
until it ceases to bubble. Cool, strain through a cloth, and let stand
until solid.
FRIED OYSTERS [Footnote 40: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the price of oysters
is too high, some seasonable small fresh fish such as pike may be used in
place of oysters. These may be prepared for frying in the same manner as
oysters. If desired, corn-meal may be substituted for dried bread crumbs.]
Large oysters
Dried bread crumbs
Salt and pepper
Eggs
1 tablespoonful water or oyster juice for each egg
Remove pieces of shell from the oyster by running each oyster through the
fingers. Wash the oysters, drain immediately, and dry them on a soft cloth
or towel (see _Cleaning Oysters_). Season with salt and pepper. Beat
the eggs slightly and dilute by adding one tablespoonful of water or
strained oyster juice to each egg. Sprinkle salt and pepper over the dried
bread crumbs. Dip the oysters into the prepared crumbs, then into the egg
mixture, and finally into the crumbs. Fry one minute, drain, place on
paper, and serve.
Lemons cut into eighths are desirable to serve with fried oysters. Parsley
makes a pleasing garnish.
To Clean Utensils that have Contained Fat.--An alkaline substance such as
washing soda is effective in cleaning utensils that have held fat. To show
the action of washing soda on fats try the following:
EXPERIMENT 34: SAPONIFICATION OF FAT.--Into a test tube put 1/2
teaspoonful of washing soda and 1 teaspoonful water, then heat until the
washing soda is entirely dissolved. Melt 1 teaspoonful of solid fat and
add it to the soda solution. Boil the contents of the tube for a few
minutes and then examine it. What substance does the foaming suggest? What
has been formed by the union of fat and soda? What application can be
drawn from this with regard to the use of soda in cleaning utensils that
have contained fat?
Wipe out with soft paper the utensil that has held fat. Fill it full of
water, add some washing soda, and heat. Empty the water and wash. Do not
use washing soda in aluminum utensils (see _Preparing Dishes for
Washing_).
QUESTIONS
What is taking place when hot fat emits an odor?
Name two advantages in dipping foods that are to be fried in egg.
Why are dried rather than soft bread crumbs used for covering foods that
are to be fried?
LESSON XXXV
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--FOOD FATS
FOOD FATS.--Fats and oils are extracted from various materials and refined
so as to make them suitable for food. Food fats are of both animal and
vegetable origin. Fats separated from milk (butter), meat fats (suet,
lard) are animal fats while those separated from seeds (cottonseed and
peanut), cereal (corn), fruit (olive), nuts (coconuts) are vegetable fats.
A discussion of various food fats follows:
(_a_) _Butter_ is made by churning ripened cream so as to
separate the fat from the other ingredients contained in milk. It is
salted and usually colored before putting it on the market.
The popularity of butter is dependent upon its flavor, for its fuel value
is not greater than any other fat. Indeed butter does not contain as much
fat as do the vegetable oils and fats, and certain other animal fats.
Butter contains 85 per cent of fat while many vegetable oils and fats and
lard contain 100 per cent of fat. Butter contains, however, certain
growth-producing substances called _vitamines_ (see Division Seven).
All fats do not contain vitamines. The latter are found in butter, but are
not present in vegetable oils and fats and in pork fat.
Butter is one of the most expensive foods of a household. Its use,
therefore, must be carefully considered. Because of its pleasing flavor,
for some purposes no fat is as desirable as butter. If, however, fat is to
be combined with foods of _pronounced flavor, i.e._ foods whose
flavor is strong enough to cover up other food flavors, other fats may be
substituted with satisfactory results.
(_b_) _Oleomargarin_ is a combination of several different fats.
It is usually made by churning soft beef fat (called oleo oil) and neutral
(_i.e._ carefully rendered) lard with milk or cream. Sometimes butter
and cottonseed and peanut oils are added. Because colored oleomargarin is
highly taxed, this fat is usually not colored in its preparation for the
market.
The term oleomargarin is used not only as the trade name for fat of the
composition stated above, but as the legal name of any food fat prepared
as a butter substitute. To comply with the law, solid fats found at market
and containing no oleo oil are labeled oleomargarin.
(_c_) _Nut Margarin_ is also a mixture of various fats. It
usually consists of coconut oil combined with cottonseed or peanut oil.
(_d_) _Meat Fats_.--The fat of pork is commonly "tried out" or
"rendered" to free it from connective tissue. That obtained from trying
out the fat from around the kidneys is called _leaf lard_; ordinary
lard is obtained from the fats of other parts of the animal. The former is
considered of superior quality.
Beef suet or the fat from around the kidneys and loin of beef is also
tried out and used for cooking. All scraps of fat--cooked or uncooked--as
well as any drippings from beef, veal, pork, and chicken, should be saved
and used in cooking. The fat from mutton has a peculiar flavor and so
cannot be used in food, unless cooked with certain flavoring materials
(see _Mutton_). It may be saved for soap-making. Fat from soup and
drippings need only be clarified before using for cooking; suet and other
uncooked fat of meat must be first tried out.
(_e_) _Vegetable Oils_.--The oil from cottonseed, corn, and
peanut is prepared for table use and sold under various trade names. Oil
is also extracted from the olive. This is an extremely expensive oil. Its
food value is no greater than that of other vegetable oils; only "olive
flavor" is secured for the greater price. Refined cottonseed and corn oils
are bland in flavor. Peanut has a characteristic flavor pleasing to most
persons. When these vegetable oils become rancid, however, their flavor is
disagreeable.
FAT COMBINATIONS.--Every thrifty housekeeper should have several kinds of
fats in her larder, and should use all with discretion. Fats may be
combined for certain purposes. Many times in making pastry or in sauteing
and frying, it is desirable to use a firm and a soft fat together, such as
butter and lard, suet and oil, or suet and chicken fat.
FISH BALLS
1 cupful salt codfish
4 small potatoes
1 egg
1/2 tablespoonful butter or substitute
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Wash the fish in water and tear into small pieces; wash and pare the
potatoes. Cook the fish and the _whole_ potatoes together in gently
boiling water, containing no salt, until the potatoes are soft. Drain and
shake over the fire until dry; mash, add the beaten egg, fat, pepper, and
salt (if needed), and beat until light. Take up the mixture by spoonfuls,
mold slightly, and place in hot deep fat. Do not fry more than six balls
at one time. Fry until brown, drain, garnish, and serve at once. White or
Cheese Sauce may be served over Fish Balls.
The potatoes used in fish balls may be steamed. The codfish, however, must
be soaked or cooked in water.
QUESTIONS
Why is it not necessary to soak codfish for Fish Balls in water before
cooking?
Why is salt not added to the water in which codfish and potatoes are
cooked?
If a food that is to be fried contains much water, what happens to the
water when placed in the hot fat? Explain why it is better to leave the
potatoes whole rather than cut them into pieces for cooking. Why is it
especially necessary to dry the fish and potato mixture before frying?
What ingredient do Fish Balls contain that hardens immediately on being
heated? Of what advantage is this ingredient in mixtures that are to be
fried?
What is the price per package of codfish? What is the weight and measure
of a package?
LESSON XXXVI
FAT AS A FRYING MEDIUM--DIGESTION OF FAT
EXPERIMENT 36: ACTION OF OIL AND WATER.--Pour a little corn or cottonseed
oil into a test tube, add the same quantity of water, and shake the tube.
Set the tube aside for a minute and examine. Which material rises to the
top? Is oil soluble in water? What application can be made from this
concerning the effectiveness of cleaning the fat of meats with water?
EXPERIMENT 36: EMULSION OF FAT.--In a test tube put a bit of soap and 2
tablespoonfuls of water. Heat until the soap is melted. Add 1/2
teaspoonful of vegetable oil. Shake the mixture and then examine. What
familiar food does the mixture look like? Set the tube aside for a minute.
Does the oil rise to the top as in Experiment 35? The fat is in an
emulsified condition.
BREAKING UP OF FATS.--Fats and oils are not soluble in any substance found
in the digestive juices, but they are acted upon by an enzyme [Footnote
41: Steapsin or lipase is the enzyme found in the pancreatic juice which
acts upon fat.] and by an alkaline substance found in the pancreatic
juice. The enzyme breaks up some of the fat into a fatty acid [Footnote
42: Fatty acids are substances related to fats; they have certain acid
properties.] and glycerin.
During digestion, fat is emulsified, i.e. divided into tiny globules which
do not coalesce.
When a fat is emulsified, it often looks like milk. (Milk contains fat in
an emulsified form; the fat separates, however, by standing and rises to
the top to form cream.) Fats can be emulsified by several different
substances. A soap solution is one of the substances that will emulsify
fats. (The action of soap solution in emulsifying fat was shown in
Experiment 36.)
If fats are emulsified by means of soap, one might ask where the soap
comes from in the process of digestion. The soap is thought to be formed
by the action of the alkali of the pancreatic juice upon some of the fatty
acids formed by the splitting up of the fat. By means of the soap thus
formed, fat is emulsified during digestion. During digestion, fat is
broken up into fatty acids and glycerin.
FRYING AND DIGESTION.--Fat is a slowly digesting foodstuff. Not only fats,
but foods coated with fat are digested slowly. Because of the longer time
in the digestive tract, foods may cause digestive disturbances.
When fats are heated to a high temperature, they are decomposed and
irritating substances (free fatty acids) are formed. These substances are
absorbed by foods which are browned in fats.
It is well, then, to have the least possible quantity of fat soak into
foods cooked in fats. It has been found that foods soak up much more fat
when sauted (_i.e._ browning in a small quantity of fat) than when
fried. The greatest care should be taken in frying, however, to have the
fat and the food to be fried in such condition that as little fat as
possible will be absorbed. The fat should be sufficiently hot (see
Experiments 32 and 33), the food as dry as possible, and the browned food
drained on paper.
Care should be taken not only in frying foods, but in avoiding the use of
an excessive amount of fat such as butter, cream, and vegetable oils in
sauces, dressings, and pastry.
CROQUETTES.--Croquettes are cooked vegetable, cereal, meat, or fish
mixtures dipped in dried crumbs and eggs and browned in deep fat. These
food mixtures are shaped in various ways. Rice and potato croquettes are
usually cylindrical in shape, while chicken croquettes are formed into
cones.
Croquettes may be dipped in melted butter or substitute or they may be
"dotted" with bits of fat and browned in the oven or broiling oven instead
of frying in deep fat.
Starch occurs in considerable quantity in the vegetables and cereals
commonly used for croquettes. Meat and fish are usually mixed with a thick
White Sauce when used for croquettes, hence croquettes invariably contain
a starchy substance. If croquette ingredients are heated while mixing, it
is necessary to cool them thoroughly before shaping, in order that the
starch may be as stiff as possible.
POTATO CROQUETTES
1 pint mashed potatoes
Celery salt
2 tablespoonfuls butter
Onion juice
Cayenne
1 teaspoonful chopped parsley
1 teaspoonful salt
1 egg-yolk or 1/2 egg
Mix ingredients together, shape into smooth round balls and then into
cylinders. Roll in dried bread crumbs, eggs, and crumbs again (see
_Fried Oysters_). Fry in deep fat until brown.
QUESTIONS
How does the temperature of fat hot enough for frying compare with that of
boiling water? Why is an iron kettle preferable to one of tin or granite
for heating fat (see _Caramelized Sugar_)?
What happens to foods that are cooked in fat too cool for frying (see
Experiment 32)?
What is the purpose of covering with egg, mixtures that are to be fried?
How should the egg be prepared for "dipping"?
How can the remaining white or half an egg be utilized in preparing Potato
Croquettes?
If "left over" mashed potatoes are used for making croquettes, what
ingredient in the recipe above should be omitted?
LESSON XXXVII
FAT SAVING
BAKING _VS._ FRYING.--Foods fried under the most ideal conditions and
in the most skilful manner absorb much fat. Many foods well fried,
especially doughnuts, are about 1/3 fat.
Fish Balls and croquettes, as mentioned previously, can be baked instead
of fried. Baked croquettes seem somewhat more dry, however, than the fried
food. If this is objectionable a sauce may be poured over them before
serving.
Tomato, cheese, and brown sauces are tasty with most croquettes.
Doubtless many housekeepers who dislike the odor of hot fat and the
cleaning of utensils used in frying foods, will consider the process of
baking croquettes very much more satisfactory than that of frying.
RICE CUTLETS WITH CHEESE SAUCE
3/4 cupful rice
3 cupfuls boiling water
1 teaspoonful salt
Wash the rice, add the water. (If unpolished rice is used, let it soak for
several hours.) Then add the salt and heat the mixture until it boils.
Proceed as directed on page 85, Rice (cooked over boiling water).
(Unpolished rice requires about 2 hours of cooking.) Make a White Sauce of
the following ingredients:
4 tablespoonfuls flour
1 teaspoonful salt
Dash pepper
3 tablespoonfuls fat
1 cupful milk
To 2/3 of the White Sauce add:
Cooked rice
1 or 2 hard-cooked eggs, chopped
1 tablespoonful parsley, chopped
(Reserve the remainder of the White Sauce for the preparation of Cheese
Sauce.) Shape the mixture into cutlets.
Dip in dried bread crumbs (or corn-meal) and egg as directed for Fried
Oysters.
Place the cutlets on greased dripping pan. Place bits of fat on top of the
cutlets, then bake in a hot oven until they are browned. Serve hot with
the following sauce:
Remainder of the White Sauce
3/4 cupful milk
1/4 to 1/2 cupful cheese, cut in small pieces
1 pimento chopped
Dilute the White Sauce with the milk. Add the cheese and pimento. Heat and
stir until the cheese is melted. If necessary, add seasoning. Serve hot
over the cutlets.
FAT SAVING AND SOAP-MAKING.--The housekeeper who endeavors to waste no
food may find that she has saved some fat which is not suitable for food.
Such fat can be utilized in soap-making. By using "modern lye" soap-making
is not the laborious task as was the preparation of soft soap in colonial
days.
The fat for soap-making need not necessarily be decolorized. It should,
however, be tried out (if it is meat fat) and clarified before using in
the preparation of soap. (These processes are given above.)
Soap made at home differs somewhat from that made at a factory. When fat
and lye are combined chemically, soap and glycerin are formed. A
commercial soap-maker extracts the glycerin from soap, the housekeeper
does not.
Homemade soap, however, usually proves very satisfactory. When the time
consumed in making it is not needed for other duties or obligations, it is
a saving to make soap at home.
SOAP
1 can Babbit's lye
1 quart cold water
6 pounds clarified fat
2 tablespoonfuls ammonia
Turn the lye into a granite kettle, slowly add the cold water, stirring
with a stick or a wooden spoon. Work most carefully to avoid getting the
lye or the lye solution on the hands. When the water is added to the lye,
the mixture becomes very hot. Let it stand until it is cool.
Put the fat into a large kettle or dish pan. Heat it until it melts. Then
remove it from the fire. Let it cool sufficiently to bear the hands in it.
Slowly add the lye solution, stirring constantly. Add the ammonia and
continue stirring until the mixture becomes about the consistency of thick
cream. Then turn the soap into a wooden box lined with paper or into a
granite dripping pan. When the soap becomes firm, cut into pieces of
suitable size.
The materials above will make about 8 1/2 pounds of soap.
NOTE.--If desired one small cake of soap may be prepared by each pupil in
the classroom. The following recipe may be used:
1 teaspoonful lye
4 teaspoonfuls cold water
2 tablespoonfuls fat
1/8 teaspoonful ammonia
Proceed as directed for the large quantity. Pour the mixture into one cup
of a granite muffin pan or into a small pasteboard box.
QUESTIONS
How does unpolished rice differ from polished rice? Explain why the former
takes a longer time to cook than the latter (see _Polished and
Unpolished Rice_).
Explain why baked croquettes require a sauce to make them most tasty for
serving, while fried croquettes do not.
State at least 3 advantages of baking croquettes rather than frying them.
Under what conditions do you think it would be desirable to make soap at
home?
RELATED WORK
LESSON XXXVIII
DINING ROOM COURTESY
THE VALUE OF GOOD TABLE MANNERS
No matter how cultivated in mind and spirit one may be, if there is an
absence of refinement of manners, the higher qualities are likely to be
overlooked. No one can afford to slight the study of good manners. The
basis of all good manners is tact, _i.e._ a kindly consideration of
others. This consideration may be shown at the dining table quite as well
as at a social gathering. Graceful and easy table manners and a knowledge
of how to serve and be served add to the comfort as well as to the
pleasure of one's associates in the dining room.
Most of the rules of table conduct have been adopted because they lend
ease and grace or because they are sensible; others have been established
by custom and long usage.
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING TABLE MANNERS
THE CHAIR.--If the chair is placed so that the front edge of the seat just
touches the table-cloth, there is no necessity for moving the chair when
taking one's seat or when rising. One should stand back of the chair until
the hostess moves to seat herself and then move to the left of the chair
to assume the seat assigned. One should also rise at the left of the
chair.
THE KNIFE AND FORK.--There is but one "right" way to hold the knife or
fork. When the knife and fork are used together, grasp the handle of the
knife or fork with the first finger and the thumb so that the end of the
handle touches the center of the palm of the hand. The hands should almost
cover the handle, but the first finger should not extend down on the blade
of the knife or on the prongs of the fork (see Figure 35). The knife is
held in the right hand only, and is used for cutting foods and spreading
butter on bread. For the latter, a small knife, called a butter spreader,
is sometimes provided. After the knife has been used for cutting, it
should be so laid on the plate, that it rests wholly on it, never partly
on the plate and partly on the table. It is not pleasing to see a guest at
the table holding his knife upright or waving it in the air while he is
talking.
[Illustration: FIGURE 35--HOW TO HOLD THE KNIFE AND FORK.]
The fork is held sometimes in the left hand and sometimes in the right. It
should be in the left, when holding foods that are being cut with the
knife. It may be held in either hand when conveying food to the mouth. It
used to be considered "good form" to use only the right hand in lifting
food to the mouth, though this necessitated changing the fork to the right
hand after the knife had been laid aside. The common-sense method of
keeping the fork in the left hand to carry food to the mouth is now
accepted (see Figure 36). When the fork is held in the right hand and used
for conveying such food as mashed potato to the mouth, its handle should
be grasped by the thumb and first finger in somewhat the manner as a pen
is held.
When a second serving is desired, the knife and fork should be placed
together on one side of the plate, in order to make room for the food. At
the end of a course the knife and fork should be placed side by side in
the center of the plate.
[Illustration: Figure 36--Keeping the Fork in the Left Hand to Carry Food
to the Mouth]
THE FORK AND SPOON--Since both the fork and the spoon are used to convey
food, there may be some indecision as to the best use of each. The fork
should be used whenever it is possible and sensible to do so. Soft foods,
such as soft-cooked eggs, custards, certain fruits, and desserts served
with cream or sauce, should be eaten with a spoon. The fork should be used
for brick ice-cream or stiffly frozen desserts. All vegetables, salads,
and pastry are eaten with a fork. In the case of salads and pastry, it is
sometimes necessary to cut them with a fork. It is unconventional to cut
lettuce with a knife at the table; it may be shredded or torn into pieces
before it is served.
For beverages, the spoon is used for stirring and tasting, but not for
sipping. After the spoon has been used it should be placed in the saucer
(see Figure 37). When tasting with a spoon, the side--not the tip--of the
spoon should be used. When using a spoon for serving, or for sipping soup,
there is less danger of spilling the food if the spoon is moved away from,
rather than toward, oneself (see Figure 38).
[Illustration: FIGURE 37--THE TEASPOON SHOULD REST ON THE SAUCER]
THE FINGERS.--Almost all foods are served with a fork, or a spoon. The
serving-dish for all such foods should of course be provided with a fork
or a spoon. There are a few foods, however, such as bread, cake, and
wafers, which should be taken with the fingers. A slice of bread should
not be cut in pieces at the table. It is better to break off a piece of
bread and then butter it than to spread the entire slice at one time. If
cake is soft, it should be eaten with a fork. Celery, hard cheese (if cut
into pieces), radishes, confections, and most uncooked fruits are taken
with the fingers, and eaten from them. Olives and salted nuts may be taken
from the serving-dish with the fingers, but usually spoons are provided
for the purpose. Pieces of chicken or chops should be handled only with
the knife and fork. Special utensils are sometimes provided for holding
corn served on the cob.
[Illustration: FIGURE 38.--HOW TO HOLD THE SOUPSPOON.]
Fruits served whole are sometimes difficult to manage. When possible the
hostess should prepare them before they are served. Oranges and grapefruit
may be cut into halves or peeled and sliced; bananas may be peeled,
scraped, and sliced. If fruits, such as apples, pears, and peaches, are
served whole, they should first be cut into quarters, and each quarter
should be pared separately and eaten. Peaches may be cut into halves and
eaten with a spoon.
THE NAPKIN.--When the napkin is placed on the lap, it need not be spread
entirely out, but may be left with one fold in it. A guest who is to be
present at consecutive meals should fold his napkin after eating; if,
however, he is dining in a hotel or restaurant, or if he is in a home for
but one meal, the napkin should be laid on the table without folding.
QUIET EATING.--Quiet mastication without hurry and without noise is an
obligation that we owe ourselves and our companions. It is well to refrain
from talking during mastication. One cannot eat quietly unless the lips
are kept closed while chewing.
LESSON XXXIX
COOKING AND SERVING BREAKFAST
Cook and serve a breakfast.
The following is a suggestive menu:
Breakfast Cereal with Dried Fruit
Baked Fish Balls with White Sauce
Toast--Butter
Coffee
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or
without a maid (see Lesson XXX).
LESSON XL
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cooked Fruit,--fresh or dried
Creamed Toast
Coffee
See Review (Lesson XIV) for suggestions regarding the preparation of the
lesson.
LESSON XLI
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 43: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Save all scraps of fat or bits of meat fats
which are unfit for food. Try out the latter kind of fat. When you have 3
or more pounds of fat, make soap. When the soap is firm and ready for use,
weigh it.
Prepare Fish Balls (either fried or baked), Rice Cutlets with Cheese
Sauce, or some other fish or cheese dish which could be used as a
substitute for meat.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To calculate the cost of the soap made at home. To calculate the cost
of an equal weight of factory-made soap. To determine how much you have
saved by making soap at your home.
(2) To determine the difference in cost between meat and meat-substitute
sufficient to serve the family.
DIVISION SIX
ENERGY-GIVING AND BODY-BUILDING FOODS,--RICH IN PROTEIN
LESSON XLII
EGGS [Footnote 44: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If the egg lessons came in the
mid-winter months, they may be omitted until the price of eggs is
reasonable; or the "theory" concerning eggs and the experiment concerning
the temperature of cooking protein-rich foods may be given, and the
cooking of eggs take place later in the year.]
PROTEIN, A BODY-BUILDER AND REPAIRER.--An automobile requires not only
fuels for its use but occasional repair. The body also needs not only fuel
but building and repairing materials. The function of the fuel foods
considered thus far is to give energy to the body. But there is another
great class of foods, or foodstuffs--those included under the term
_protein_--that not only give energy to the body but also build up or
promote growth and repair it or support life. The process of building and
repairing takes place in the body cells. Hence the body differs from an
automobile in that it possesses the property of self-building and
repairing.
The child must have protein food so that it can grow and live when growth
is completed, the adult must have protein food so that it can live and
maintain health. The slightest using of the body causes the wearing away
of some of the tissues, hence the importance of food containing the
foodstuff, protein.
Protein is a very broad term, including many different materials, having
different properties. Some proteins will promote the growth of the body
and support life, while others are growth promoting but not life
supporting, while still others are only life supporting.
The first type of protein is sometimes called _complete_ protein,
while the two latter types are called _incomplete_ protein. In food
study and meal planning, it is not sufficient to know that a food contains
protein; one should know whether the protein is complete or incomplete.
The incomplete proteins need to be supplemented with other foods
containing the lacking type of protein. Milk, eggs, cheese, meat, and fish
contain complete proteins, while beans, peas, gelatine, and certain
cereals contain incomplete proteins.
A consideration of eggs, a food rich in complete protein, follows:
EXPERIMENT 37: THE COAGULATION OF EGG WHITE.--Put the white of an egg in a
dish and break the membranes by cutting with a pair of scissors. Then
place a small quantity of the white of egg in a test tube. Apply heat.
Into what form is the liquid egg white changed by heat?
When eggs are cooked, the protein in the white called _albumin_
stiffens or _coagulates_. The yolk also contains a kind of protein
which coagulates when heated.
EXPERIMENT 38: THE SOLUBILITY OF ALBUMIN.--Put a small portion of the
broken egg white in a test tube. Half fill the tube with cold water. Then
turn the contents of the tube on to a folded filter paper, and catch the
filtrate in another test tube. Are the contents of the tube clear?
Apply heat to the filtrate. What happens? Does this prove that egg albumin
was dissolved in the water before applying heat to the contents of the
tube? Explain.
EXPERIMENT 39: TEMPERATURE AT WHICH EGGS COAGULATE.--Place a teaspoonful
of white of egg in a test tube. Insert a thermometer in the test tube and
place the test tube in a beaker of water (see Figure 39). Heat the water
_gradually_. Note and record: (_a_) Temperature at which
coagulation first appears. (_b_) Temperature at which the egg
white is entirely coagulated. Has the water reached the boiling point when
the egg white has entirely coagulated? What application can you draw from
this as to the temperature of the water in which eggs may be cooked?
EXPERIMENT 40: COMPARISON OF COOKED AND BOILED EGGS.--Remove _at
once_ about half of the coagulated egg from the test tube of Experiment
39. Examine it and press it between the fingers.
Continue to heat the remainder of the egg in the test tube, allowing the
water to boil a few minutes. Then remove the egg, examine it, and press it
between the fingers. Compare it with the egg cooked below the boiling
point of water. Which is more tender? Which breaks more easily? Which do
you consider more palatable? What conclusion can you draw concerning the
temperature at which eggs should be cooked to make them most tender and
palatable?
DIGESTIBILITY AND PALATABILITY OF EGGS.--The experiments of this lesson
show that eggs cooked at simmering temperature are more tender than those
cooked at boiling temperature. The question may arise, is the tender egg
more wholesome than the tough egg? It is true that eggs cooked below the
boiling temperature will digest in a little less time than those cooked in
boiling water. Since, however, the tougher egg is as completely digested
as the more tender, the difference in the time of digestion is a matter of
little importance.
[Illustration: FIGURE 39.--APPARATUS TO DETERMINE THE TEMPERATURE AT WHICH
EGGS COAGULATE.]
But even though the difference in digestion is not considered, the
difference in _palatability_ is worth some attention. If soft-cooked
and soft-boiled eggs are compared, the soft-cooked will be found to be
much more uniformly cooked. The white of a soft-boiled egg may be firm,
while its yolk is very soft or the white may be soft while its yolk is
raw.
STRUCTURE OF EGGS.--A hen's egg consists of shell, membrane, white, yolk,
and the little mass in the yolk called the embryo, from which the young
chicken grows. The yolk is kept in place by two twisted cords of white
membrane. This membrane is the first part to disappear when the egg begins
to spoil.
CARE AND USE OF EGGS.--(_a_) Wash eggs just before using. [Footnote
45: Washing removes a coating on egg-shells. This coating prevents the
entrance of microorganisms. Hence eggs should not be washed until they are
to be used.] The shells may be used for clearing coffee.
(_b_) Keep eggs in a cool place.
(_c_) The unbroken yolk of an egg may be kept from hardening by
covering with cold water.
(_d_) All protein-rich foods contain substances which spoil or
decompose readily. The egg loses water by evaporation through the pores in
the shell; air enters to take the place of this and since the air contains
microorganisms, the egg spoils. Eggs may be kept fresh by keeping air out
of them. They may be preserved by packing them, small end down, in bran,
sawdust, or sand; by immersing them in water-glass.
(_e_) When using several eggs, if not sure of their freshness, break
each separately into a saucer and examine before adding to the rest.
(_f_) When using a number of eggs, it is well to scrape out the bit
of white clinging to the inside of the shell.
TESTS FOR FRESHNESS.--(_a_) A fresh egg has a rough shell. (_b_)
Drop an egg into cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh; if it floats, it is
stale.
SOFT-COOKED EGGS
Place eggs in enough boiling water to cover. Remove from the fire, cover,
and allow to stand from 5 to 8 minutes.
The time of soft-cooking an egg varies with the different conditions. The
time depends upon:
(_a_) Temperature of the eggs.
(_b_) Number of eggs cooked.
(_c_) Quantity of water used.
(_d_) Place on the stove.
One must determine by experience the length of time of cooking to produce
the desired results.
By following the method above, eggs may be cooked at the dining table.
HARD-COOKED EGGS. [Footnote 46: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The Hard-cooked Eggs
prepared in this lesson may be used in the preparation of Goldenrod Eggs
of the following lesson.]--Place eggs in cold water and heat the water
gradually until it reaches the boiling point. Remove from the fire at
once; cover and place on the back of range, or in a warm place, for 20
minutes. Plunge into cold water, so that the shells may be removed easily.
Eggs may be hard-cooked by using the same method as for soft-cooked,
allowing the eggs to remain in the hot water for 40 minutes or longer.
Eggs may also be hard-cooked in the _double boiler_. Put boiling
water in the top and bottom of the double boiler. Place the eggs in the
top part and cook 40 minutes.
If hard-cooked eggs are not well masticated, they are apt to cause
distress during digestion. To insure thorough mastication, it is well to
chop them fine and mix them with some other food (see _Goldenrod
Eggs_). Hard-cooked eggs used in this way cause no digestive
disturbances to the normal person.
QUESTIONS
Is it possible to cook eggs hard in water that is below the boiling point?
Explain your answer.
Why should eggs be called hard- or soft-_cooked_ rather than hard- or
soft-_boiled_?
LESSON XLIII
EGGS: DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
THE DIGESTION OF PROTEIN.--It was mentioned previously that proteins are
made up of many different substances. The materials composing proteins are
called _amino acids_. There are 18 common amino acids. All proteins
are not made up of the same amino acids. Amino acids in the various
proteins differ not only in kind, but in quantity.
When proteins are digested, they undergo certain changes and are finally
separated into their amino acids. As amino acids proteins are finally
absorbed and carried to all parts of the body.
The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and continues in the
intestines. The digestive juices [Footnote 47: The pepsin and hydrochloric
acid of the stomach, the trypsin of the pancreatic juice, and the erepsin
of the intestinal juice digest proteins.] of these organs change protein
into soluble forms.
POACHED EGG
Fill a shallow pan about two thirds full of boiling water. Add 1/2
teaspoonful of salt to each pint of water; place buttered muffin rings in
the pan. Break separately each egg into a saucer and carefully slip it
into a buttered muffin ring. Cover the pan and place it where the water
will keep hot _but not boil_. Pour a spoonful of the hot water on
each yolk occasionally.
Let stand (about 5 minutes) until the white is coagulated and a film
covers the yolk. Take up with a skimmer, drain, place on slices of toast,
and serve at once.
An egg poacher may be used in place of the muffin rings, or the water in
the pan may be stirred in a circular motion and the eggs dropped at once
into the "whirlpool." This tends to keep the white of egg from separating
into pieces.
Eggs are thought by some to be much more tasty when poached in milk rather
than in water.
GOLDENROD EGGS
3 or 4 hard-cooked eggs
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
3/4 teaspoonful salt
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 1/2 cupfuls milk
6 pieces of toast
Parsley
Separate the yolk and white of the cooked eggs and chop the whites. Make a
White Sauce of flour, seasoning, fat, and milk. Add the chopped egg whites
to the sauce and pour it over the toast. Press the yolks through a
strainer or crush them with a fork and sprinkle them over the top of the
toast. Garnish with parsley and serve at once.
If the crusts are not cut from bread in making toast, it is well to dip
the edges of each slice of toast for an instant in hot, salted water
before adding the sauce (see _Cream Toast_).
QUESTIONS
Why is it advisable to pour occasionally a spoonful of hot water over the
yolks of eggs that are being poached?
Explain why the chopped hard-cooked eggs in Goldenrod Eggs should be more
easily digested than plain hard-cooked eggs (see Experiment 12, and
_Solution and Digestion_).
LESSON XLIV
EGGS: OMELETS (A)
TO BREAK AND SEPARATE THE WHITE AND YOLK.--An egg is sometimes broken by
cracking the shell with the blade of a knife or by striking the egg on the
edge of a bowl or pan. The following method has also been found
satisfactory, especially when it is desired to separate the white and
yolk.
Strike the egg one blow upon the surface of the table. Put the thumbs
together at the crack in the shell, then hold the egg upright, and gently
break the shell into two parts. Then slip the yolk several times from one
part of the shell to the other until all the white has run over the edge
into a bowl or plate. Scrape out the shell of the egg.
Two kinds of egg beaters are used for eggs,--the Dover egg beater and the
wire spoon. If the former utensil is used, the egg is generally dropped
into a bowl; if the latter, the egg is placed on a plate.
TO BEAT AN EGG.--When the wire spoon is used to beat an egg, draw the
spoon straight and swiftly through the egg, tilting the dish and lifting
the egg beater so that the material will be turned over at each stroke.
Egg whites are beaten _stiff_ when the impression made by the beater
is retained; and they are beaten _dry_, when the gloss has
disappeared and flaky bits fly off as the egg is beaten. Egg yolks are
beaten thoroughly when they are thicker and much lighter in color than
before beating.
TO CUT AND FOLD BEATEN EGG WHITES AND OTHER MATERIALS.--Pour the beaten
egg whites into the material with which they are to be mixed; then with a
tablespoon edgewise, cut the ingredients, lift them, and turn them over
the whites. Repeat quickly until the ingredients are mixed thoroughly.
EXPERIMENT 41: EFFECT OF BEATING A WHOLE EGG.--Break an egg into a bowl.
What is its approximate measure? With a Dover egg beater or wire spoon
beat it thoroughly. What is the approximate increase in quantity? What has
been beaten into the egg? What other difference is there between a beaten
and an unbeaten egg?
(Use this egg for making Scrambled Eggs. See below.)
EXPERIMENT 42: COMPARISON OF EGGS BEATEN WITH A DOVER EGG BEATER AND WITH
A WIRE SPOON.--Half the pupils of the class beat eggs with Dover egg
beaters and the other half with wire spoons. Compare results. What is the
difference in the size of the air cells made by using the different
utensils? Is there any difference in the quantity of the beaten eggs?
Which contains the more air?
EXPERIMENT 43: EFFECT OF BEATING EGG YOLK AND WHITE SEPARATELY.--Separate
an egg and beat thoroughly the white and then the yolk with a Dover egg
beater or wire spoon. What is the approximate increase in quantity? Which
becomes lighter when beaten,--a whole or a separated egg? From this
explain why every bit of yolk should be removed from the egg white before
beating, if it is desired to beat the egg white as stiff as possible.
(Use this egg for making Foamy Omelet. See below.)
SCRAMBLED EGGS
4 eggs
1 teaspoonful salt
Pepper
1/2 cupful milk
1 teaspoonful butter
Scald the milk in a double boiler and add the butter. Beat the eggs and
add the seasoning. Pour the hot milk over the egg mixture; return the
whole to the double boiler, and cook, stirring constantly. When the
mixture is thick and "lumpy" but still tender, remove from the double
boiler and serve at once.
For economy, the butter may be omitted.
FOAMY OMELET
4 eggs
4 tablespoonfuls milk or water
1/2 teaspoonful salt
Pepper
2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Separate the yolks and whites of the eggs. Beat the yolks of the eggs
until creamy; add seasonings and milk or water. Then beat the whites until
stiff and cut and fold them into the yolk mixture. Place the fat in an
omelet pan, heat, and turn the omelet into it. Cook _slowly_,
occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly When the
omelet is set and delicately browned underneath, place it in a hot oven
for a few minutes to dry the top. Fold and serve immediately.
[Illustration: FIGURE 40--METHOD OF HOLDING PAN TO TURN AN OMELET ON TO A
PLATTER]
TO FOLD AN OMELET--Run a spatula underneath the omelet to loosen it. Make
a slight incision with a knife through the middle of the omelet at right
angles to the handle of the pan, and fold the omelet over upon itself away
from the handle of the pan. Grasp the handle of the pan in the right hand,
placing the back of the hand underneath with the thumb pointing away from
you. Then turn the omelet upon a platter (see Figure 40).
QUESTIONS
How are Scrambled Eggs usually cooked? From your work concerning the
effect of intense heat upon eggs, explain the advantages of the method
given above for Scrambled Eggs.
What is the proportion of liquid and salt for each egg of a Foamy Omelet?
Explain why it is especially important to cook a Foamy Omelet slowly.
What causes a Foamy Omelet to "fall"?
What is the test for the sufficient oven-drying of a Foamy Omelet?
How many persons may be served by using these recipes for Scrambled Eggs
and Foamy Omelet?
LESSON XLV
EGGS: OMELETS (B)
WHITE SAUCE OMELET
3 tablespoonfuls flour
2 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 teaspoonful salt
1 cupful milk
Pepper
4 eggs
2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Make a White Sauce of the milk, fat, flour, and seasoning. Separate the
whites and yolks of the eggs, and beat them until light. When the White
Sauce is cool, stir in the yolks and fold in the whites. Cook and serve as
Foamy Omelet.
BAKED OMELET
Prepare a White Sauce Omelet. Instead of turning it into a frying pan,
pour it into an oiled baking-dish. Bake in a hot oven (375 degrees F.)
for 30 to 40 minutes, or until it is "puffed" in appearance and golden
brown in color. Serve at once from the dish in which it was baked.
MODIFICATION OF FOAMY AND WHITE SAUCE OMELETS.--Mix and cook a Foamy or
White Sauce Omelet. As soon as the omelet begins to set, spread it while
cooking with finely chopped cooked ham, veal, or chicken. Continue to cook
and then dry, fold, and serve as with the usual omelet.
Cooked peas, asparagus, cauliflower, or flaked fish may be added to the
sauce of White Sauce Omelet. Cheese may be used in place of meat with
either omelet.
Foamy Omelet may be varied by using tomato juice instead of milk. Tomato
sauce may be served with either of these omelets.
Sweet Omelet may be made as follows: Add 4 tablespoonfuls of powdered
sugar to the Foamy Omelet mixture; after cooking, spread with softened
jelly; after folding, sprinkle with powdered sugar. Use 1/2 cupful of
jelly for the Foamy Omelet recipe.
QUESTIONS
Why is the White Sauce cooled before adding the egg yolks in White Sauce
Omelet?
Point out the most important differences between a Foamy and a White Sauce
Omelet.
What is the purpose of cutting and folding in the whites of eggs in
omelets?
What is the purpose of beating eggs?
What are the tests that show when egg white is beaten stiff and when dry?
What are the tests for thoroughly beaten egg yolk?
LESSON XLVI
MILK
MILK, AN INVALUABLE FOOD.--It has been said that there is no one food
_except milk_ which cannot be eliminated from the diet. Milk is the
only food for which there are no easily found substitutes. The housekeeper
or one who plans the food for the family should purchase daily, if
possible, a pint of milk for each adult and a quart for each child under
ten years. She should see to it that this amount of milk is entirely used
either as a beverage or in cooked foods. If one must economize in foods,
_less should be spent for meat, and more for milk_.
Although more than 4/5 of milk is water, it contains only a little more
water than do potatoes and lean meat. The value of milk is due to the fact
that it contains: (_a_) _Proteins of "excellent quality_." An
authority on diet says [Footnote 48: See "The Newer Knowledge of
Nutrition," by McCollum, p. 74.]: "There can be no doubt that the proteins
of milk are far superior to those of any foods derived from vegetable
sources." The most important protein existing in milk is called
_casein_.
Casein is a complete protein and is very important for growth. It has a
peculiar property; it precipitates when acid is added to milk. When milk
sours, the sugar contained in the milk changes to an acid, and this acid
causes the casein to precipitate. Casein is also clotted by an enzyme
occurring in the digestive juice of the stomach.
(_b_) _Valuable ash_. Lime which is so essential to bodybuilding
is one of the minerals in milk. The following diagram from United States
Food Leaflet No. 11 shows that milk is especially rich in lime. (Lime is
calcium oxide.)
[Illustration]
(_c_) _Vitamines_. These are substances contained only in
certain foods. They are essential for maintaining life and health. Milk is
rich in these indispensable materials (see Division Seven).
Milk also contains fat and carbohydrate. The presence of the foodstuffs in
milk is shown by the following:
EXPERIMENT 44: SEPARATION OF MILK INTO FOODSTUFFS.
(_a_) By means of a cream dipper, remove the cream from a bottle of
milk. Place a drop of the cream on a piece of paper. Let the paper dry.
What foodstuff is indicated by the stain on the paper?
(_b_) Take 1/4 cupful of the skimmed milk. Heat it to blood
temperature (test by dropping the milk on the wrist, see _Junket
Custard_). Crush 1/8 junket tablet and add it to the warm milk. Stir
until the powder is dissolved. Let the milk stand in a warm place until it
is clotted. Heat the clotted milk and boil 1 minute. Pour it into a filter
paper. Catch the filtrate in a beaker. What is the foodstuff that remains
in the filter paper (see Proteins of "excellent quality")?
(_c_) Put 15 cubic centimeters of Fehling's Solution [Footnote 49:
NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Fehling's Solution is made as follows: Prepare a
solution of Rochelle salts,--175 grams of Rochelle salts, 50 grams of
sodium hydroxide, and 250 cubic centimeters of water. Prepare a solution
of copper sulphate,--57.73 grams of copper sulphate, 250 cubic centimeters
of water, and 0.4 cubic centimeter of sulphuric acid. Then combine 1 part
of the alkaline Rochelle salt solution, 1 part of copper sulphate, and 4
parts of water. Boil the mixture.
This solution deteriorates readily. The best results are obtained by using
a "fresh" mixture for testing sugar and by boiling just before using.] in
a flask. Boil for 2 minutes. Add 2 cubic centimeters of the filtrate from
(_b_) and boil one minute. To what color does the blue mixture
change? A red precipitate indicates sugar. What foodstuff does this test
indicate that milk contains?
(_d_) Put the remainder of the filtrate from (_b_) in a custard
cup and evaporate over hot water to dryness. Note the residue. What
foodstuff other than sugar is contained in the residue?
(_e_) What foodstuff has passed off in the form of vapor during
evaporation?
(_f_) As mentioned above, milk also contains vitamines.
LESSON XLVII
MILK WITH COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
EXPERIMENT 46: SCALDING MILK.--Fill the lower part of a double boiler one
third full of boiling water. Put 1/2 cupful of milk in the top of the
double boiler, cover, and heat over the boiling water. In a few minutes
examine. Carefully note the appearance of the surface of the milk. Explain
why it is that dishes that have contained milk should be soaked in cold
water, and then washed in warm water.
Insert a thermometer in the milk and record temperature. Is it possible to
boil milk over hot water? Explain your answer. (Use this scalded milk to
make cocoa and chocolate.)
The taste of milk is changed by heating it above 158 degrees F. Less
change, however, is produced by scalding than by boiling. Milk is also
apt to scorch if cooked at boiling temperature. It is sometimes necessary
to boil milk to sterilize it.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE as found at market are prepared from cacao beans. The
latter grow in pods,--the fruit of the tropical cacao trees (see Figure
41). The beans are taken from the pods, allowed to ferment, dried, and
roasted. The husks loosened by roasting are then removed from the beans.
Cacao beans are ground, molded, and sold as bitter or baker's chocolate.
In the preparation of sweet chocolate sugar is added to the powdered
chocolate before molding. Cocoa differs from chocolate in that some of the
fat is removed.
Cocoa and chocolate contain protein, fat, and carbohydrates. These
materials, in addition to the milk and sugar used in preparing the
beverages, make the cocoa and chocolate beverages high in food value. But
in addition to the materials mentioned above, there is present in cocoa
and chocolate some tannin and stimulating materials. The large percentage
of fat existing in chocolate may produce distressing effects when taken in
addition to a full meal. If, however, the use of these beverages causes no
ill effects, they may be classed among the nutritious foods and are much
preferable to tea and coffee especially for girls and boys.
Neither cocoa nor chocolate is soluble in water. Some cocoas are very
finely ground and are termed soluble cocoas.
[Illustration: FIGURE 41.--CACAO PODS.]
When mixed with water these cocoas do not separate as rapidly as others,
but they are not soluble. Because of its insolubility, chocolate should be
blended as thoroughly as possible with other materials. A satisfactory and
practical method of accomplishing this is to make a _smooth paste_ of
chocolate and boiling water.
To develop flavor, it is well to cook both chocolate and cocoa at boiling
temperature, especially when combining with liquids. The flavor of the
cocoa beverage is improved by much cooking. Long cooking of the chocolate
beverage causes the fat to separate and float.
COCOA
1/4 cupful cocoa
3 cupfuls milk
1 to 3 teaspoonfuls corn-starch
1/4 to 3/8 cupful sugar
1 cupful water
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Mix cocoa, corn-starch, and water and boil for 10 minutes. Add the milk
and sugar to the mixture and cook over hot water for 1/2 hour. Add salt.
Beat well and serve. Vanilla may be added to cocoa if desired.
Varying quantities of corn-starch and sugar are given so that the beverage
may be thickened and sweetened to suit one's taste. If desired, the corn-
starch may be omitted entirely.
CHOCOLATE
2 squares chocolate
3 cupfuls milk
1 cupful boiling water
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1/3 cupful sugar
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Cut the chocolate into bits and put it in a pan; add the boiling water.
Stir and cook until it reaches the boiling point and is perfectly smooth.
Heat the milk in a double boiler. Then gradually add the hot milk to the
chocolate mixture, add the sugar, and heat all in a double boiler. Add
salt and vanilla, if desired. If there is a scum over the beverage, beat
well. Serve hot.
Whipped cream or marshmallows are often served with chocolate. The use of
whipped cream with chocolate, however, makes the beverage excessively rich
in fat.
QUESTIONS
What is the difference in method between scalding milk and boiling it? How
can one determine when milk is scalded?
If it is necessary to heat milk, give two reasons why it is usually better
to scald it than to boil it. Under what conditions should it be boiled?
What is the present cost of milk per quart? When is the price highest and
when lowest?
If sweetened chocolate is used, how should the recipe for chocolate
beverage be changed? Give two reasons why cocoa and chocolate should not
be boiled after adding the hot milk.
Why is vanilla not added until the beverages are ready to be served (see
_Flavoring Extracts_)?
What is the weight of one square of chocolate? How many squares in an
ordinary cake of chocolate? What is the price per cake?
How many cupfuls are there in a half pound box of cocoa? What is the price
per box?
See Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding. How much cocoa may be used for 1 ounce
of chocolate when one is substituted for the other? What is the difference
in cost of these quantities of chocolate and cocoa?
LESSON XLVIII
MILK AND CREAM
WHIPPING CREAM.--A popular way of preparing cream for serving is to whip
it. This is done most successfully when the cream is cold and kept cold,
_i.e._ surrounded with ice water during the beating process.
To show one of the points involved in chilling materials try the
following:
EXPERIMENT 46: COMPARISON OF THE CONDUCTING POWER OF METAL AND
EARTHENWARE.--Select a tin and an earthenware utensil of about the same
size and shape. Put an equal quantity of water of the same temperature in
each utensil. Surround each with ice water and cover. After 5 minutes,
take the temperature of the water in the tin and in the earthenware
utensil. Which is colder? Through which material,--tin or earthenware,--is
heat transmitted more readily? When cream is to be surrounded by ice water
for whipping, in which kind of utensil should it be placed? Explain your
answer.
Use a Dover egg beater or a cream whip for whipping cream. Since cream
"spatters" when being beaten, a cream whip arranged with a cover is very
satisfactory. To prevent spattering, the bowl of cream may be covered with
paper while the cream is being whipped. Cut a slit in a piece of paper,
insert the Dover egg beater in the slit, put the beater in the cream and
push the paper down to cover.
Since cream contains considerable fat, under certain conditions, it is
possible to mass the fat together, that is, separate it from the other
constituents, and form _butter_. For making butter the cream should
be "ripened," i.e. it should contain certain bacteria. It should then be
churned.
On the other hand, if it is desired to beat or whip the cream, but not to
form butter, it is necessary to prevent the fat from massing together. To
accomplish this, use thick cream (containing 20 per cent or more of fat)
from 12 to 24 hours old [Footnote 50: Such cream contains a small amount
of lactic acid.] and have it very cold; it will then whip quickly. Cream
may be chilled by placing it on ice for some time before whipping or by
surrounding it with ice water while whipping. In warm weather, it is safer
not only to chill the cream but also to surround it with ice water while
whipping.
A harmless substance called _viscogen_ may be added to thinner cream
(_i.e._ the so-called coffee or 16 per cent cream) to make the latter
whip. Viscogen is prepared by mixing the following ingredients:
1/2 cupful sugar
1 cupful water
1 tablespoonful milk of lime [Footnote 51: Milk of lime may be prepared
by mixing 1 part of slaked lime with 3 parts of water.]
Mix the sugar and water and heat the mixture until it boils. Cool and add
the milk of lime. Let the mixture stand at least 24 hours before using.
Add 1 teaspoonful to each pint of cream, then whip the mixture as directed
above.
COMPARISON OF MILK AND CREAM.--Cream is richer in fat than milk, average
cream containing 16 per cent of fat and whole milk about 4 per cent. But
cream contains less protein and ash than whole milk.
Since cream is always more expensive than milk, it is interesting to
compare the food value of quantities of each which may be purchased for
the same price. Although the prices of cream and milk vary in different
places, usually 1/2 pint of cream costs about as much as 1 quart of milk.
The following shows the approximate quantity of nutrients shown in the two
quantities:
_In 1 quart of milk_ [Footnote 52: By permission Journal of Home
Economics, Vol. X (August, 1918, p. 379).]
As much protein as in 5 eggs
2 1/2 tablespoonfuls of fat
3 tablespoonfuls of sugar
_In 1/2 pint of cream_
As much protein as in 1 egg
3 tablespoonfuls of fat
1/2 tablespoonful of sugar
Although 1/2 pint of cream contains 1/2 tablespoonful more of fat than
does 1 quart of milk, the latter contains 2 1/2 tablespoonfuls more of
sugar and as much more protein as is contained in 4 eggs. This comparison
makes us question the advisability of buying much cream.
If whole milk is purchased, its top milk may often be used in place of
cream. The skim milk that remains is a valuable food. Although whole milk
contains more fat and vitamines than does skim milk, the latter has as
much protein, lime, and sugar as whole milk. The use of both whole and
skim milk is advised.
CARE OF MILK.--Milk is one of the foods that require the greatest care,
and should be well cared for not only in the home but also on the dairy
farm. It is one of the foods that afford ideal conditions for the growth
of microscopic vegetable organisms, called _bacteria_ (see _Why
Foods Spoil_). Many varieties of these bacteria or tiny plants produce
changes in the milk which cause it to sour. A few varieties of disease-
producing bacteria also sometimes exist in milk.
Milk can be kept reasonably free from bacteria by:
(_a_) Perfect cleanliness on the dairy farm.
(_b_) Cooling it immediately after being drawn from the cow, and by
keeping it cool.
(_c_) Placing it in sterilized utensils.
(_d_) Covering it, thus keeping it free from dust.
Utensils for holding milk should be of glass, earthenware, or smooth,
bright tin. They should be washed, scalded, or even better, boiled, and
placed in the sun for two or three hours. In the home, milk should not be
used after long standing, even though it is sweet. It is well to buy milk
in small quantities and in bottles. The upper rim of a milk bottle should
be washed before pouring milk from it. Because milk readily absorbs odors
and flavors, it should be kept away from any substance having a strong
odor or flavor.
RICE DAINTY
3/4 cupful cooked rice
3/4 cupful fruit, cut into pieces
3/4 cupful powdered sugar
1/2 to 3/4 cupful cream, whipped
Mix the rice, fruit, and sugar, then fold in the whipped cream. Pineapple,
shredded or diced; bananas cut into pieces (not slices); dates, seeded and
cut into pieces; or cooked apricots are desirable fruits for this dessert.
CREAM OF RICE PUDDING
1 quart milk _or_
1 quart milk and water
1/3 cupful rice
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/3 cupful sugar
Grated rind of 1/2 lemon
Wash rice; put it and all the other ingredients into a buttered pudding
dish. Bake in a _slow_ oven (250 degrees F.) until firm. This usually
takes three hours. While baking, stir the mixture occasionally.
If desired, one half cupful of raisins may be added to the mixture, and 1
teaspoonful vanilla or 1/4 teaspoonful nutmeg may be substituted for lemon
rind.
QUESTIONS
From your knowledge of the effect of intense heat upon milk, explain why
Cream of Rice Pudding should be baked in a slow oven.
What change in quantity takes place in the milk of this pudding during
long cooking? What change in quantity takes place in the rice during long
cooking? From this explain why so much milk when combined with a little
rice forms a solid mixture.
What is the price per pint of thin or coffee cream?
What is the price per pint of heavy or whipping cream?
What is the least quantity of cream that can be purchased?
Explain why it is that scalded milk does not sour as soon as uncooked milk
(see _Care of Milk_).
Why should utensils that have held milk be scalded or boiled?
LESSON XLIX
CREAM SOUPS (A)
THICK SOUPS.--Milk combined with various vegetables, grains, and fish is
used in making Cream Soups and Purees. The vegetables are cooked and
mashed or forced through a strainer and combined with a liquid,--usually
milk or milk with vegetable stock. In order to have the vegetable pulp
uniformly mixed through the liquid, it is necessary to thicken the liquid
with a starchy material. Flour with butter or substitute, mixed and cooked
as in White Sauce, is used for this purpose. It is said to "bind" the
vegetables and the liquid. Thus, Cream Soups and Purees are simply White
Sauces to which vegetable pulp is added.
GENERAL PROPORTIONS.--_The usual proportion of vegetable pulp or puree
to liquid is:_ One part of vegetable pulp or puree to 2 parts of
liquid, _i.e._ milk, vegetable stock, or meat stock.
_The proportion of flour to liquid is:_ 1/2 tablespoonful flour to 1
cupful liquid, if a starchy vegetable is used, or, 1 tablespoonful flour
to 1 cupful liquid, if a vegetable having little thickening property, as
celery, is used.
Sometimes an egg or two is added to soup for thickening or flavor, and to
increase the food value.
Different kinds of vegetables are sometimes mixed for a soup, as: Peas and
beans, or corn and beans.
POTATO SOUP
3 potatoes
1 tablespoonful flour
1 pint milk _or_
1 pint milk and potato stock
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
2 slices of onion
Celery salt
3/4 tablespoonful butter or substitute
2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley
Cook and mash the potatoes, heat the milk and onion in a double boiler,
then add them to the mashed potatoes. Press the potato mixture through a
strainer and use it as the liquid for a White Sauce, using all other
ingredients except the parsley in the sauce. If necessary, add more
liquid, or evaporate to the desired consistency. Add the chopped parsley
just before serving.
"Left over" mashed potatoes may be utilized in making this soup.
CROUTONS
Cut stale bread into half-inch cubes. Bake _slowly_ in the oven until
a golden brown. Stir often. Serve with soups.
Save the crusts and prepare Dried Bread Crumbs with them.
QUESTIONS
What is the proportion of flour and liquid in one cup of White Sauce for
Vegetables?
How does the proportion of flour and liquid for one cup of Cream Soup
differ from the above proportion?
Why are the potatoes pressed through a strainer _after_ rather than
_before_ adding the hot milk?
Why should the cubes of stale bread be baked slowly (see _Toast_)?
LESSON L
CREAM SOUPS (B)
FOOD VALUE OF CREAM SOUPS.--Since thin or clear soups contain much liquid,
their food value is not as high as most solid foods. Cream Soups, however,
are as concentrated as a potato; they are the most nourishing of all
soups. The use of milk instead of water or stock and of flour and fat, to
say nothing of vegetable pulp, increases their food value. Cream Soups are
more suitable to serve at a meal of few courses such as luncheon or supper
rather than at dinner where there is a greater variety of foods.
Thick soups may serve as a valuable part of a meal; a hot liquid taken
into an empty stomach is easily assimilated, acts as an appetizer, and
thus prepares for the digestion of the remainder of the meal.
CORN SOUP
1 can of corn
1 pint water
l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 slice onion
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful white pepper
1 pint milk
Add the water to the canned corn and _simmer_ 20 minutes. Melt the
fat, add the onion, and cook until light brown. To this add the dry
ingredients and proceed as in making White Sauce. Add the cooked corn and
strain.
Reheat before serving, if necessary.
NOTE.--The method of adding onion flavor to this soup (_i.e._
browning onion in fat) is often used in the preparation of other foods,
especially meats and sauces.
SOUP STICKS
Cut stale bread into slices, remove the crusts, and spread with butter.
Cut into strips and brown slowly in the oven. Save the crusts and prepare
Dried Bread Crumbs with them.
[Illustration: FIGURE 42.--DRIED BREAD CRUMBS. (Note that the jar is
covered with a cloth.)]
DRIED BREAD CRUMBS
Dried Bread Crumbs may be prepared from crusts and small pieces of bread.
Dry the bread in a slow oven or in a warming oven. Crumb it by rolling on
a pastry board or putting it through a meat grinder. If fine crumbs are
desired, sift the crushed bread. Place the fine and coarse crumbs in
separate jars. Cover the jars by tying a piece of muslin over each. (The
muslin covering can also be conveniently secured by means of a rubber
band.) If each jar is tightly covered with a lid, air is excluded from the
crumbs and molds often grow on them. Bread crumbs thoroughly dried and
stored as directed will keep for several months (see Figure 42).
QUESTIONS
Explain why thick soup may serve as a valuable part of a meal.
Why is it served as the first course of a meal?
Is the mashed potato of Potato Soup strained before or after adding it to
the other ingredients? When is the Corn Soup strained? How is the flavor
extracted from the onion in preparing Potato Soup? How is the flavor
extracted for Corn Soup? From this explain the difference in straining the
soups.
If fresh corn were used for this soup, how would its cooking differ from
that of canned corn?
How should fresh corn be cut from the cob for soup (see _Green
Corn_)?
What is the price per can of corn?
In preparing Soup Sticks, why are the crusts removed from the bread before
buttering it? Why is the bread spread with butter before cutting it into
strips? Aside from flavor, what is the purpose of spreading the bread for
Soup Sticks with butter?
How should dried bread crumbs be covered for storing? Why?
What is the difference between soft bread crumbs (see note under recipe
for Stuffed Tomatoes) and dried bread crumbs? Which should be used for
scalloped dishes? Which for covering fried foods? Think of the dishes
which contain bread crumbs and then state for which foods either kind of
crumbs could be used. Explain.
LESSON LI
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (A)
CUSTARDS.--Since eggs have the property of stiffening when heated, they
are often used for thickening liquids, especially milk. Milk thickened
with eggs is called _custard_.
There are two kinds of plain custards: (_a_) steamed or baked custard
and (_b_) soft custard. The method of mixing these custards is the
same, but the methods of cooking and the tests for sufficient cooking
differ.
That the milk may not scorch and that the egg may not cook too hard, all
milk-and-egg mixtures should be cooked below the boiling temperature of
water. They should never be cooked directly over the fire, but over hot
water or in a double boiler. That the egg may cook evenly and not too
quickly, the water in the double boiler _should not boil rapidly_.
If a custard is properly cooked, the egg is in a soft-cooked condition. It
exists in a jelly-like mass throughout the milk. The custard has a creamy
appearance. If, however, a custard is cooked too much, the egg becomes
hard-cooked and the particles of egg appear in "lumps" in the milk
mixture. The custard is then said to be _curdled_.
A curdled custard may be made smooth by placing the upper part of the
double boiler in a pan of cold water and then beating the custard _at
once_ with a Dover egg beater. This applies to all types of plain
custards.
STEAMED OR BAKED CUSTARD
1 pint milk
2 or 3 eggs
1/4 cupful sugar
1/8 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls caramel sirup _or_
1/16 teaspoonful nutmeg
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs _slightly_, add the
sugar and salt, mix. Add the hot milk to this mixture. Strain the mixture,
flavor, and pour it into a mold. If _steamed custard_ is desired,
steam (without stirring) until the custard is firm. Let the water in the
steamer boil gently rather than vigorously. Test for sufficient cooking by
inserting a knife into the custard. If it comes out clean, the custard is
done.
If _baked custard_ is desired, place the cups of custard in a pan of
hot water, and bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) for 35 minutes or
until firm. Test as steamed custard.
If a Baked or Steamed Custard is to be turned out of the mold after
steaming, 3 or 4 eggs should be used with each pint of milk. By placing a
little Caramel Sirup in the bottom of each mold, a custard may easily be
turned out of the mold. The custard mixture should be poured very gently
on top of the sirup to prevent the custard and sirup from mixing. The
caramel also serves as a sauce for the custard when served. (Caramel Sirup
may be prepared by caramelizing sugar (as directed in making _Peanut
Candy_) and then dissolving the caramelized sugar in boiling water. Use
equal quantities of sugar and water.)
SOFT CUSTARD
1 pint milk
1/4 cupful sugar
2 eggs
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the materials in the same way as for steamed or baked custard. Instead
of pouring the mixture into molds, return it to the double boiler and cook
(stirring constantly) until it thickens or forms a coating over the spoon.
Strain, cool, and flavor. Note that steamed custard is strained and
flavored before cooking, and soft custard, after cooking.
In preparing soft custard, the eggs may be separated and the yolks cooked
with the milk and other ingredients. The whites may be beaten stiff and
beaten into the hot mixture with a Dover egg beater. Soft Custard may be
used as a sauce over cooked rice, cake, bananas, peaches, and other foods.
_To Decrease the Eggs in Custard _
When eggs are expensive omit 1 or 2 from a custard recipe. Substitute 1/2
_tablespoonful of corn-starch for each omitted egg._ For methods of
thickening milk with both eggs and starchy materials, see Lessons LIV.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of eggs in custard?
Why are eggs beaten _slightly_ for custards?
How do Steamed Custards and Soft Custards differ in method of cooking?
What are the tests for sufficient cooking of each?
What is the purpose of straining custards? Why is Steamed Custard strained
and flavored before cooking, and Soft Custard, after cooking?
In what condition is the egg when a custard is curdled? How can a curdled
custard be made smooth?
LESSON LII
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (B)
FLOATING ISLAND
_Custard_
1 pint milk
3 egg yolks
1/4 cupful sugar
1/8 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
_Meringue_
3 egg whites
3 tablespoonfuls powdered sugar
The custard may be made thicker by using 4 (instead of 3) eggs.
Prepare the custard as Soft Custard.
Prepare the Meringue by beating the whites of eggs stiff and then adding I
tablespoonful of sugar for each white of egg. Drop the Meringue by
spoonfuls on the custard. If desired, garnish the Meringue by bits of
jelly or colored gelatine.
From the results of Experiment 42, which egg beater do you consider most
advisable for preparing Meringue?
If desired, the Meringue may be cooked. This may be accomplished in
several ways: (_a_) place it on the _hot_ custard at once after
preparing the custard, (_b_) Steam it by dropping it by spoonfuls on
the hot milk before preparing the custard. Cover, and let the egg white
cook for about 2 minutes, then remove from the milk and proceed to thicken
the milk with the egg yolks, (_c_) Drop the uncooked Meringue on the
cooked custard as directed above, then cook and brown it slightly by
placing the custard in the broiling oven or in the top of a hot baking
oven.
QUESTIONS
In making custards, why should the hot milk be added to the eggs, instead
of the eggs to the hot milk?
How does Floating Island differ from Soft Custard?
What is Meringue?
Compare Floating Island made with three eggs to that made with four eggs.
How does it differ in thickness, color, and cost?
LESSON LIII
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG (C)
APRICOT DAINTY
1 cupful dried apricots
1/3 cupful powdered sugar
3 egg whites
Wash and soak the apricots. Steam until soft. Mash the apricots, or press
through a coarse strainer or colander; add the sugar. Beat the whites of
eggs until very stiff; fold them into the apricots and sugar mixture.
Chill and serve with Custard Sauce.
Dried _prunes_ may be substituted for apricots, using less sugar and
adding a little lemon juice.
If it is desired to make Apricot Dainty some time before serving, it
should be stiffened with gelatine. To do this, mix 1/2 tablespoonful of
granulated or powdered gelatine with 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water. Add
the gelatine mixture to the hot mashed or strained apricots, stir until
the gelatine is dissolved, then proceed to add the sugar and egg white as
directed above.
CUSTARD SAUCE
Use the recipe for Soft Custard for Custard Sauce, substituting 3 yolks
for 2 whole eggs.
QUESTIONS
Why is it desirable to steam the fruit rather than cook it in water for
this dessert?
Compare the custard made with the entire egg to that made with the egg
yolk. What is the difference in thickness and color?
How many egg yolks are equivalent to two whole eggs in thickening?
LESSON LIV
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (A)
EGG AND STARCH.--How long is it necessary to cook milk-and-starch mixtures
so that the starch will be cooked thoroughly (see _Blanc Mange_)? How
long does it take to cook eggs when used for thickening? Are eggs used for
thickening harmed by long cooking? Explain your answer. If both starch and
egg are used for thickening a mixture, devise a way whereby the starch can
be cooked thoroughly, and the egg can be cooked without curdling.
BUTTERSCOTCH TAPIOCA
1 pint milk
1/8 to 1/4 cupful granulated tapioca
1/2 cupful dark brown sugar
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 egg
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
1/2 to 1 tablespoonful butter
Scald the milk, add the tapioca, and cook the mixture over hot water until
the tapioca is transparent (see _Apple Tapioca_, above). Mix the
sugar, salt, and egg. Add a portion of the hot tapioca mixture to the egg
mixture. Mix thoroughly, then return the mixture to the double boiler.
Stir and cook until the egg thickens. Add the vanilla and butter and turn
into dishes for serving. Cool. Serve with plain or whipped cream.
The quantity of tapioca determines the stiffness of the dessert. If a very
soft consistency is desired, use the smaller quantity of tapioca.
Chopped nuts may be added to the dessert just before turning into the
serving dishes.
For economy, the egg and butter may be omitted. If the egg is omitted, the
greater quantity of tapioca should be used.
CREAM OF POTATO SOUP
3 potatoes
2 1/2 cupfuls milk
2 egg yolks or 1 egg
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Pepper
1/8 teaspoonful celery salt
Cook the potatoes until soft, drain, and mash. Scald the milk and add it
to the potatoes, then strain the mixture. Beat the eggs, add seasoning,
combine with the potato mixture, and cook in the top part of the double
boiler, stirring constantly, until the egg thickens. _Serve
immediately_.
QUESTIONS
In Butterscotch Tapioca what ingredient could be substituted for tapioca?
How much of this ingredient should be used (see _Blanc Mange_,
above)?
What is the purpose of the eggs in Cream of Potato Soup?
Why should the soup be served immediately after cooking the eggs?
How does this soup differ in thickening materials from Potato Soup (see
above)?
What would be the effect of adding 1 egg to plain Blanc Mange?
When and how should the egg be added? Give reasons for your method of
adding the egg.
Write a recipe for Soft Custard in which corn-starch is substituted for
one of the eggs. Write out the method of cooking such a custard.
LESSON LV
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (B)
CORN CUSTARD
1 can corn _or_
6 ears green corn
1 teaspoonful salt
l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 cupful milk
2 eggs
Make a White Sauce of the flour, salt, butter, and milk. Add the corn (for
method of cutting green corn from the cob, see Lesson IV). Beat the eggs,
add them to the corn mixture. Turn the mixture into a buttered baking-
dish, and place the dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven
until the mixture is firm. Serve hot as a vegetable.
_One egg may be omitted_ and the flour and fat increased to 3 and 2
tablespoonfuls respectively.
CHEESE PUDDING
1 cupful cheese grated or cut into pieces
1 egg
1 cupful milk
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/4 cupful dried bread crumbs or granulated tapioca
Cayenne
Beat the egg slightly, and add the other ingredients. Turn into a buttered
baking-dish, custard cups, or ramekins. Place in a pan of hot water, and
bake in a moderate oven until the mixture is firm. Serve hot (for method
of preparing _Dried Bread Crumbs_).
QUESTIONS
What ingredients in Corn Custard thicken the mixture?
What ingredients in Cheese Pudding thicken the mixture?
What is the purpose of placing the baking-dish containing Corn Custard or
Cheese Pudding in a pan of hot water? At what temperature should these two
foods bake? Give a reason for your answer.
In Cheese Pudding, why are the starchy material and egg cooked for the
same length of time?
Compare the cost of a can of corn and six ears of green corn.
How many persons will the recipe for Corn Custard serve?
How many will the Cheese Pudding serve?
LESSON LVI
MILK THICKENED WITH EGG AND STARCHY MATERIALS (C)
Bread Puddings are made by adding bread to a custard mixture, and then
baking in the oven like Baked Custard. For these puddings either stale or
dry bread is used. The bread should be softened with the milk.
How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Steamed or Baked
Custard? How many eggs are used to thicken one pint of milk in Bread
Puddings (see recipe below)? Account for this difference.
BREAD PUDDING
2 cupfuls milk
1 cupful bread crumbs
1 tablespoonful butter
3 tablespoonfuls sugar
1 egg
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful vanilla _or_ 1/2 teaspoonful spices
3 tablespoonfuls cooked currants
Scald the milk; add the bread crumbs. When the crumbs are soft, add the
remaining ingredients. Pour the mixture into a buttered baking-dish, and
place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake the pudding slowly until
it becomes firm and golden brown. Cover during the first 15 minutes of
baking. Serve with cream, Hard Sauce, Chocolate or Vanilla Sauce (see
below).
If chocolate were added to the recipe for plain Bread Pudding, what change
should be made in the other ingredients (see _Chocolate Corn-starch
Pudding_)? Since chocolate contains much fat, what ingredient could be
omitted, if chocolate were used? Compare the recipes for Bread Pudding and
Chocolate Bread Pudding.
CHOCOLATE BREAD PUDDING
1 cupful bread crumbs
2 cupfuls scalded milk
1 ounce chocolate
1/4 cupful boiling water
1/3 cupful sugar
1 egg
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Add the bread crumbs to the scalded milk and allow them to soak until
soft. Cut the chocolate in pieces, add the boiling water to it, and cook
gently until a smooth paste is formed. Add this to the bread mixture.
Proceed as in the preparation of plain Bread Pudding. Serve with plain or
whipped cream or Lemon Sauce.
VANILLA SAUCE
1/2 cupful sugar
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/8 teaspoonful salt
2 cupfuls boiling water
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter
1 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix sugar and flour thoroughly, then add boiling water slowly. Cook 10
minutes. Dilute or evaporate if necessary. Add the butter and vanilla
[Footnote 53: See footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] just
before serving.
CHOCOLATE SAUCE
1/2 cupful sugar
3 tablespoonfuls flour
1 cupful water
1 cupful milk
3/8 cupful cocoa _or_
2 squares (or ounces) chocolate
1/4 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful vanilla
Mix the sugar, flour, and cocoa (if the latter is used). Add the water;
stir and cook until the mixture thickens. Then add the milk and cook over
boiling water for at least 15 minutes.
If chocolate is used, cut it in pieces, add 5 tablespoonfuls of boiling
water. Stir and cook until a smooth paste is formed. Add the chocolate to
the other ingredients, then the salt and vanilla. [Footnote 54: See
footnote 25 regarding the adding of vanilla.] Serve hot or cold over
desserts.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of the egg and bread in the Bread Pudding?
What care must be taken in combining the egg mixture with the hot milk
mixture?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the ingredients of Bread Pudding,
and then explain why the pudding should bake slowly. What is the result,
if baked in a very hot oven?
What is the reason for covering the pudding during the first 15 minutes of
baking?
Name combinations of spices that would be desirable for the pudding.
What care should be taken in cooking chocolate in boiling water?
In preparing Vanilla Sauce, why is the flour mixed with the sugar (see
Experiment 24)?
How does the quantity of thickening for Vanilla Sauce compare with the
quantity of thickening for the Sauce for Cream Toast?
Give the four different quantities of flour generally used to thicken one
pint of sauce.
What care should be taken in cooking Vanilla Sauce?
Compare the recipe for Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding with that for
Chocolate Sauce. What material and how much of it is used for thickening
each? What difference in consistency is there in the two cooked mixtures?
What liquids are used in each mixture? Why is the sauce cooked directly
over the flame and then over, boiling water, while the pudding is cooked
only over boiling water?
LESSON LVII
CHEESE (A)
THE RELATION OF CHEESE TO MILK.--To show the relation of cheese to milk,
and to understand the manufacture of cheese, try the following:
EXPERIMENT 47: EFFECT OF RENNET ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in
a test tube and heat the milk a very little, taking care not to boil it.
Add to it 1/4 teaspoonful liquid rennet, or 1/8 junket tablet, and set
aside. After a few minutes examine the milk. How has the rennet changed
the milk? What substance in the milk has been clotted by the rennet (see
Lesson XLVI)?
EXPERIMENT 48: SEPARATION OF CURD AND WHEY--Again heat the contents of the
test tube of Experiment 47, turn the mixture into a cheese-cloth, and
press the cloth until the mixture is dry. Examine the material left in the
cloth. How does it differ from ordinary cheese in color and texture? In
cheese making what names are given to the solids and liquids of clotted
milk?
Cheese is prepared for the market in a way somewhat similar to that shown
in Experiments 47 and 48, except that it is colored, salted, pressed into
shape, and allowed to ripen. While ripening, changes take place in the
ingredients of cheese which develop characteristic flavors and make the
cheese firm.
There are two general classes of cheese,--hard cheese and soft cheese. A
hard cheese commonly known as "American Cream Cheese" is generally used in
this country.
ACTION OF RENNIN IN DIGESTING MILK.--The rennet or junket used to clot the
casein of the milk is obtained from the digestive juices of the stomach of
a calf. An enzyme called rennin exists in the gastric juice of the human
stomach also. When milk is digested, it is first clotted by the enzyme in
the stomach.
EXPERIMENT 49: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Add a few drops of vinegar to warm
milk in a test tube. What is the result? What substance in the milk has
been curdled by the acid?
To what substance in milk is its sweet taste due? Into what has this
substance changed when milk sours? What causes the change in this material
(see _Care of Milk_)? Knowing the effect of acid on milk, explain the
clotted condition of sour milk.
JUNKET "CUSTARD"
1 quart milk
1/4 cupful sugar
1 teaspoonful vanilla
1 tablespoonful liquid rennet _or_
1 junket tablet
Powdered cinnamon or nutmeg
Heat the milk in a double boiler until it is _lukewarm_ only; do not
heat it to scalding temperature. Test milk for lukewarm, _i.e._ body
temperature, by letting a drop fall on the wrist. If the milk "feels like
the wrist"--neither warmer nor colder--it is lukewarm in temperature. If a
junket tablet is used, crush it. Add the sugar, vanilla, and rennet or
junket, and stir until dissolved. Pour into a glass dish and stand in a
warm place until it thickens. Then set the Junket "Custard" in a cool
place. When cold, sprinkle with a little cinnamon or nutmeg, and serve
with cream.
COTTAGE CHEESE
1 quart thick sour milk
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Cream, top milk, or butter
Pour at least 2 quarts of boiling water into the sour milk. Allow the
mixture to stand until the curd separates from the whey. Strain the
mixture in a cloth, pressing the cloth until the curd is dry, or allow it
to drip for several hours or overnight. Put the curd in a bowl, add salt
and a little cream, top milk, or melted butter, and mix thoroughly. Serve
lightly heaped, or molded into balls.
QUESTIONS
Why should junket tablets be crushed before adding to the milk (see
Experiment 12)?
In what way is the preparation of milk for Junket "Custard" like the
digestion of milk in the stomach?
Tell why Junket "Custard" is quickly digested.
How much Cottage Cheese is obtained from 1 quart of milk?
Explain the use of boiling water in preparing Cottage Cheese from sour
milk.
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese prepared at home?
What is the price per pint of Cottage Cheese obtained at market?
LESSON LVIII
CHEESE (B)
FOOD VALUE AND USE OF CHEESE.--Cheese is concentrated food, _i.e._ it
contains much nourishment in small bulk. One pound of cheese contains as
much protein as two pounds of eggs or one and one half pounds of meat, and
as much fat as three pounds of eggs and one pound of beef. In addition to
protein and fat, cheese contains ash and vitamines (see Division Seven).
Cottage Cheese is a particularly good food. Since it is less expensive
than most foods rich in protein, it should be used to a greater extent
than it is at the present time. Most tasty salads and meat substitute
dishes may be prepared from cottage cheese.
Cheese was formerly considered somewhat difficult of digestion, but
investigations (see Farmers' Bulletin 487, _The Digestion of Cheese_,
p. 15.) show that cheese differs but little from meat in ease of
digestion. Cheese, like protein foods in general, if cooked at all, should
be heated at low or moderate temperature.
It is well to cook cheese in combination with other food materials. The
use of cheese at the close of a dinner, when sufficient food has already
been eaten, is not advisable.
CARE OF CHEESE.--Molds grow rapidly upon cheese, especially if it is
placed in a warm place and the air is excluded from it (see _Why Foods
Spoil_). For this reason, cheese should never be placed in a tightly
covered dish or jar. It may be placed in a dish or jar and covered with a
cloth. To keep cheese that has been cut from drying, wrap it in paraffin
paper, then in a slightly dampened cloth, and then in paper. It should
not, however, be kept in the damp cloth too long; molds will grow upon it.
MACARONI AND CHEESE
1 cupful macaroni
1 1/2 cupfuls medium White Sauce
2 cupfuls buttered crumbs
3/4 cupful grated cheese
Break macaroni into one-inch pieces. Cook in a large quantity of boiling,
salted water, in the same manner as Boiled Rice. When tender, pour into a
colander, and run cold water through it. Make the sauce, using half milk
and half "macaroni water" for the liquid; then add the cheese and macaroni
to it. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Cover with the buttered crumbs
and bake at 450 degrees F. for 20 minutes or until brown.
_Rice or noodles_, cooked in the same way, may be substituted for
macaroni.
QUESTIONS
What must be the condition of cheese in order to grate it? If it is very
soft, how should it be prepared to add to the sauce?
What is macaroni? What foodstuff does it contain in large quantity?
What is the effect of cold water on cooked macaroni (see Experiment 17)?
Why is it cooked in a large quantity of boiling water?
What does the water in which the macaroni was cooked contain?
What use can be made of the water that is drained from the macaroni (see
_Cheese Sauce,_)?
What is the price per pound of macaroni? What is the price per pound of
rice? What is the price per pound of cheese?
How much cheese, by weight, is required for one cupful of grated cheese?
How many will this recipe for Macaroni and Cheese serve?
How does cheese compare in price per pound with beefsteak? How does it
compare in nutritive value? How much of the cheese is waste material? How
much of beefsteak is waste material? Which is the cheaper food?
LESSON LIX
STRUCTURE OF BEEF--METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS
MEAT.--The flesh of animals is called _meat_. In market this term is
applied to the muscle, bone, and fat of beef (cattle), veal (calf), mutton
(sheep), lamb, and pork (pig).
To show the structure and properties of the substances in lean meat, try
the following experiments with beef:
EXPERIMENT 50: DIVISION OF MUSCLE.--Scrape a piece of lean beef on both
sides until nothing remains but the stringy mass or framework of the meat.
What is the color and texture, _i.e._ toughness, of the two parts into
which the muscle is divided?
Lean meat, or muscle, of animals may be divided into two parts: (_a_)
connective tissue or framework, and (_b_) muscle fiber.
Divide both the connective tissue and muscle fiber into two equal
portions. Use them for Experiments 51 and 52.
EXPERIMENT 51: EFFECT OF DRY HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE TISSUE.--
Examine the connective tissue and note its toughness. Place it in a frying
pan and heat it for a few minutes. Examine it again. Is it made more
tender or tough by dry heat?
(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Shape one portion of the muscle fiber into a
ball. Place it in a frying pan and heat as directed in (_a_). Is the
fiber made more tender or tough by dry heat? Sprinkle a bit of salt over
it and taste. What can you say regarding the flavor of the fiber?
EXPERIMENT 52: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND HEAT ON: (_a_) CONNECTIVE
TISSUE.--Place the second portion of connective tissue in a pan and cover
it with water. Let it simmer for at least 15 minutes. How do moisture and
heat affect its toughness?
(_b_) MUSCLE FIBER.--Use the second portion of muscle fiber and cook
in water at simmering temperature as directed in (_a_). How do heat
and moisture affect its toughness? Sprinkle a bit of salt over it and
taste. Compare its flavor with muscle fiber cooked by dry heat. Which has
a more pleasing flavor?
From these experiments what conclusion can you draw with regard to the
length of time--_long or short_--that _connective tissue_ must
be cooked in order to make it tender? What conclusion can you draw with
regard to the kind of heat--_dry or moist_--that must be applied to
connective tissue to make it tender?
What conclusion can you draw regarding the effect of dry and moist heat
upon muscle fiber? Which makes it more tender? Which develops the more
pleasing flavor?
[Illustration: FIGURE 43.--STRUCTURE OF MEAT. A. muscle fibers; B. fat
cells; C. connective tissue.]
THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF MEAT.--The connective tissue of meat is
the material which holds the muscle fiber in place. One can get an idea of
the structure of muscle fiber from some cuts of meat such as the rump.
This meat when cooked can be torn into strands. On closer examination,
however, one finds that these strands are made up of tiny tubes,
microscopic in size, which are also held together by a network of
connective tissue (see Figure 43). The microscopic tubes hold the muscle
juice, which consists of water, protein, ash, coloring and flavoring
materials. The latter give to meat its characteristic taste; they are
called extractives. In the network of connective tissue, there is fat as
shown also in Figure 43.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers
College. FIGURE 44.--CLUB OR DELMONICO STEAK.]
The muscle juice found in muscle fiber not only contains protein, but the
walls of muscle fiber and connective tissue contain protein. These
proteins differ greatly in quality, however. They will be discussed in the
following lesson.
CARE OF MEAT.--As soon as meat comes from the market remove the paper in
which it is wrapped, and put the meat away in a cool place. Before
cooking, wipe the meat with a damp cloth. Do not allow it to stand in cold
water. If meat is to be roasted, it should be weighed before cooking.
SEARING MEAT.--Since the juice of meat contains both nutriment and flavor,
it is desirable to retain the juice when meat is cooked. This can be
accomplished by subjecting meat to intense heat. By so doing, the protein
coagulates and "seals" the outside of the meat so that its juices are
prevented from escaping. _This process is called searing._
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 45.--PORTERHOUSE]
From the results of Experiment 51 (_b_), one can understand why
seared meat tastes good. Dry heat tends to develop flavor. Hence it is
desirable to sear meat not only to prevent waste of its juices, but to
make it tasty. After meat is seared, it is usually necessary to reduce the
temperature of cooking in order to cook the interior of meat.
TENDER CUTS OF BEEF--Certain muscles of an animal used for food contain
more connective tissue than others. Such muscles are considered tough cuts
of meat. Other muscles contain either less connective tissue or the
connective tissue is less tough. These are considered tender cuts.
[Illustration: FIGURE 46.--SIRLOIN,--HIP STEAK (portion next to the
porterhouse) _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College_]
[Illustration: FIGURE 47.--SIRLOIN,--FLAT BONE (choice cut in the middle
of the sirloin section). _Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College._]
Muscles which are the least used by the animal are most tender. What parts
of the beef would one expect to find most tender?
Certain methods of cooking meat are adapted to cooking the tender cuts.
Unless meat is chopped, only tender cuts of meat can be cooked
successfully by dry heat. The following methods are used for tender cuts
of meat: (_a_) broiling, (_b_) pan-broiling, and (_c_)
roasting (baking).
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 48.--SIRLOIN,--ROUND BONE (next to the rump and round).]
The best steaks of beef for broiling or pan-broiling are club (see Figure
44), porterhouse (see Figure 45), sirloin (see Figures 46, 47, 48), and
first cuts of round. The best cuts for roasting are porterhouse, prime
ribs (see Figures 49, 50), and sirloin.
Long shoulder or chuck (see Figures 51, 52), top round, and rump (see
Figures 54 and 57) are inferior roasts.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 49.--FIRST CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 50.--SECOND CUT PRIME RIB ROAST]
BROILING
Select one of the tender steaks for broiling. Tender steaks should be cut
from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. Clean it as directed previously, remove
the excess fat, and place the meat on a broiler. Broil over glowing coals
or in the broiling oven, holding the broiler very close to the coals, or
placing it near the gas flame. The meat should be thoroughly _seared_
on both sides. Finish cooking the meat by holding it farther away from the
coals or the gas flame and turning it about every 10 seconds. Steak 1 inch
thick should be cooked at least 5 minutes; 2 inches thick, at least 10
minutes. Season, place on a hot platter, and serve _at once_.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_, Teachers College
FIGURE 51.--BLADE RIB ROAST (7th and 8th ribs).]
PAN-BROILING
Clean the meat, remove excess fat, and place the meat in a very hot frying
pan _without any fat_. Sear the meat on both sides, then cook more
slowly until done. When thick chops are broiled, stand them on end to
brown the edges. Keep the pan free from fat. The time for pan-broiling is
the same as for broiling.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PAN-BROILING AND SAUTEING.--Pan-broiled steak differs
from sauteed steak (commonly termed fried steak) in: (_a_) ease of
digestion and (_b_) flavor. As explained previously (_Frying and
Digestion_), fat cooked at high temperature is not easily digested.
For this reason, as far as digestion is concerned, it is better to omit
the fat, and to broil a steak.
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_. Teachers College
FIGURE 52--CHUCK RIB ROAST (9th and 10th ribs)]
Meat has a distinct and characteristic flavor. Browned fat also has a
pronounced flavor. In broiled steak, the pure meat flavor exists; In
"fried" steak there is meat flavor plus browned fat flavor. Since the
flavor of meat is most pleasing, it is not advisable to modify it by the
addition of any other flavor.
ROASTING (BAKING)
Roasting was accomplished formerly by placing thick pieces of meat before
an open fire (see Figure 53). "Roasts" are now placed in the oven and
baked. The term roasting, however, is still used. Meat is roasted as
follows:
[Illustration: FIGURE 53.--COLONIAL FIREPLACE, SHOWING A "ROASTING
KITCHEN"--a device for roasting meat--at lower right-hand corner.]
Weigh the meat and clean it. Then skewer it into shape and place it on a
rack in a roasting pan. If the meat has but little fat, place extra fat in
the bottom of the pan. Place the pan on the upper shelf of a hot oven
(500 degrees F.) and sear for 20 minutes. Reduce the temperature to 400
degrees F. Season the exposed surface with salt and pepper, dredge with
flour, and remove the pan to the floor or lower shelf of the oven. Baste
often. When the meat is about half done, turn it over, season, dredge with
flour, and continue baking as before.
Since less evaporation takes place in a large roast than in a small one,
the larger roasts are more juicy, hence more desirable. A good roast of
beef should weigh at least 4 pounds.
The time for roasting varies with the weight of the meat. Usually, for
beef roasts, _15 minutes to each pound_ is allowed.
QUESTIONS
Explain the purpose of searing meat.
If meat is to be roasted, pan-broiled, or broiled, how is it seared?
Why is it necessary to remove the fat from meat that is to be broiled or
pan-broiled?
Why cannot meat be broiled over _blazing_ coals?
What is the price per pound of porterhouse and of sirloin steak?
What is the average weight of sirloin steak? Of porterhouse steak?
How many persons will each serve?
LESSON LX
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (A)
PROTEIN IN MEAT.--It was mentioned previously that there are several
different kinds of protein in lean meat. It was also stated that proteins
exist in:
(_a_) Connective tissue.
(_b_) Walls of muscle fibers.
(_c_) Muscle juice.
Two proteins exist in connective tissue, viz., _collagen_ and
_elastin._ Collagen is changed into gelatine by cooking in water.
Elastin is found not only in connective tissue, but in the walls of muscle
fibers. In muscle juice, there are two proteins,--_myosin or muscle
globulin_ and _albumin_.
Both myosin and albumin coagulate by heating. It is possible to sear meat
because it contains proteins. The scum which invariably forms when meat
broth is heated consists largely of protein, probably in the form of
albumin. This protein as shown in experiments on eggs is soluble in cold
water, but is coagulated by heating. If meat broth is skimmed, much of its
nutriment is lost.
[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE
54--ROUND.]
[Illustration: Courtesy of Bureau of Publications, Teachers College FIGURE
55.--CHUCK.]
Of all proteins in meat, myosin is the most important; it exists in
greater quantity than the other proteins. Myosin, is practically insoluble
in both hot and cold water, though somewhat soluble in a salt solution. As
not much myosin is extracted from meat in soup making, _the solid part
of meat must be eaten in order to obtain the greatest nourishment_.
Meat broth does not contain as much food value as meat.
CHOPPED BEEF.--If meat is chopped, what is the effect of the cutting on
its structure? How would this affect its toughness?
It is possible to pan-broil or roast some of the tough cuts of meat, if
the meat is chopped fine. Round (see Figure 54, p. 203) and shoulder or
chuck (see Figure 55) are especially desirable cuts for this purpose.
CHOPPED STEAK
1 pound beef steak, chopped
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls chopped parsley
1 onion, grated
1 teaspoonful salt
1/2 cupful water or
3/4 cupful tomatoes
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Mix all the ingredients and shape into firm cakes. Heat an iron frying pan
until hot; oil it with a bit of fat from the meat; _then remove the
fat_. Sear the cakes; then reduce the temperature to finish cooking.
Turn the cakes often. Season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.
Half a cupful of soft bread crumbs and 1 egg may be added to this meat
mixture.
The addition of 1 tablespoonful of lemon juice, or a dash of nutmeg is
thought by some to improve the flavor of chopped beef.
Instead of shaping chopped beef into small cakes, it may be formed into
one large cake or steak. The chopped steak may be either broiled or pan-
broiled. If the latter method is followed, a pan-cake turner is useful in
turning over the steak.
BEEF LOAF
Use the ingredients for Chopped Steak, adding the bread crumbs and egg.
Shape into a loaf, and place in a greased baking-pan. Bake in a hot oven
(450 degrees F.) for about 30 minutes. Serve hot, plain, or with Tomato or
Brown Sauce.
The use of tomatoes instead of water in _Beef Loaf_ makes the meat
especially tasty.
QUESTIONS
Why is it necessary to reduce the temperature to finish cooking meat after
searing it?
What are the prices per pound of round and long shoulder?
How many cupfuls are there in one pound of chopped meat?
How many servings of Chopped Steak can be obtained from one pound of meat?
LESSON LXI
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TENDER CUTS (APPLIED TO CHOPPED BEEF) (B)
STUFFED MEAT ROAST
2 pounds chopped meat
2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Mix these ingredients. Take about three fourths of the mixture, put it
into a greased baking-dish or pan, shape it into a loaf, and make a large
cavity in the center. Into the cavity, put a stuffing prepared as follows:
2 cupfuls bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful salt
1 teaspoonful marjoram
1/4 teaspoonful thyme
1/4 teaspoonful savory
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
2 tablespoonfuls fat
Mix the crumbs and seasoning. Melt the fat, add the seasoned crumbs. Stir
and heat until the crumbs are slightly browned.
Put the remainder of the meat mixture on top of the crumbs, so that the
latter are entirely surrounded by the meat mixture. Place in a hot oven
and bake from 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Serve hot,--plain or with Brown Sauce (see
below).
Instead of bread stuffing, potato stuffing prepared as follows may be used
in _Stuffed Meat Roast_.
Tomatoes may be added to the meat mixture (see _Beef Loaf_).
POTATO STUFFING [Footnote 55: From United States Food Administration
Bulletin.]
2 cupfuls dry mashed potatoes
1 egg (beaten)
1 small onion, grated
1 tablespoonful fat
1 stalk celery finely minced _or_
1/2 teaspoonful celery salt
1 teaspoonful salt
Pepper
Mix the ingredients and use in place of ordinary bread stuffing.
EXPERIMENT 53: COMPARISON OF STARCH AND DEXTRIN FOR THICKENING.--When
flour is browned what substance is formed from some of the starch (see
Experiment 26, above)?
Make a White Sauce, using 1 teaspoonful of fat, 1/2 tablespoonful of
flour, and 1/4 cupful of water. Make a Brown Sauce with the same
ingredients, browning the fat and flour. Compare the Brown and White Sauce
as to thickness. Which has the greater thickening property,--starch or
dextrin? Estimate the quantity of flour to use for Brown Sauce in order to
make it equal in thickness to a White Sauce made by using 1, 2, and 3
tablespoonfuls of flour to 1 cupful of liquid.
NOTE.--If a suitable fat has been used, the Brown Sauce may be seasoned
and used with the Stuffed Meat Roast.
BROWN SAUCE
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls fat
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
Pepper
1 cupful meat stock or hot water
1 teaspoonful scraped onion
If there is any meat stock in the roasting pan, remove it and make the
"Brown Sauce" in the pan. Put fat and onion in the pan, and brown them.
Add the flour and brown it, then add the other ingredients and cook as
_White Sauce_.
QUESTIONS
What cuts of meat are suitable for roasting? Why?
Explain how it is possible to use tough cuts of meat and roast them
successfully.
LESSON LXII
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (A)
EXPERIMENT 54: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON MEAT.--Place a bit of meat in a
test tube or glass measuring cup and add cold water. Allow it to stand for
a few minutes and note the appearance. What has been drawn out into the
water? What practical application as to washing meat can be made from
this?
Heat the water in which the meat has been soaked. What does the water
contain? In soup making, should this material be strained out of broth?
Explain. If broth must be strained, should a coarse or a fine strainer be
used? Why?
EXPERIMENT 55: EFFECT OF BOILING WATER ON MEAT.--Pour boiling water over a
bit of meat, then heat it. Has the juice been drawn out into the water?
Explain how hot water prevents the juices from being drawn out.
EXPERIMENT 56: EFFECT OF SALT ON MEAT.--Sprinkle some salt on a piece of
meat. Let stand for 10 minutes or longer and note results. What practical
application as to seasoning meats can be drawn from this?
NOTE.--The bits of meat used in these three experiments should be saved
and used for soup-making.
TOUGH CUTS OF BEEF.--From the Experiments of Lesson LIX, what was found to
be the toughest portion of the muscle of meat? What method of cooking was
used to make this tough part tender (see Experiments 51 and 52)? Toughness
of meat depends upon (_a_) amount of connective tissue, and
(_b_) character of the walls of muscle-fiber tubes (thick or thin).
These conditions depend upon (_a_) the age of the animal, and
(_b_) locality of muscle or cut of meat.
Although meat contains some materials which are better slightly cooked,
tough cuts of meat contain so much connective tissue that long cooking is
necessary to make them palatable. _The long cooking must be accomplished
in water or steam_ in order that the meat may not burn or become too
dry.
Meat from old animals is usually tough. Veal and lamb are more tender than
beef and mutton. The muscles that are used most are toughest, because they
are developed to a greater extent and contain more connective tissue.
Muscles that are constantly used contain more extractives, hence tough
cuts of meat have more flavor than tender cuts. This is not always
appreciated, however, since all the flavor of tough meat is rarely
extracted because it is so hard to chew. Moreover, as mentioned
previously, dry heat usually applied to tender cuts tends to develop
flavor in meat.
USE OF BONE AND FAT IN SOUP-MAKING.--Bone contains a substance which long
cooking changes into a jellylike mass called _gelatine_. In the
center of the bone there is a fatty substance called _marrow_. This
fat in the bone and that in and around the muscles liquefies in making
soup stock. In cooling, the fat rises to the top, hardens, excludes the
air from the stock, and thus prevents it from spoiling readily. Hence, in
soup-making, it is of advantage to use both the fat and the bone with the
lean meat. The fat, however, should be removed carefully from the stock
before using.
BEEF STOCK
2 pounds meat, bone and fat
1/4 teaspoonful celery seed
5 peppercorns
2 cloves
2 quarts cold water
1/2 bay leaf
2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Cut the meat and fat into small pieces. Try out some of the fat and brown
about 1/3 of the meat in it. Put all the meat in a kettle, add the
seasoning and water; cover, and allow to soak one hour. Then cook below
boiling temperature for 3 hours; strain through a coarse strainer. Pour it
through a fat separator or set aside to cool. If the fat has been allowed
to solidify, skim it from the surface when the stock is to be used.
1 can of tomatoes, 1 carrot, 1 turnip, and 1 onion (all cut in small
pieces) may be added to the ingredients of beef stock. Trimmings and bones
of fresh meats or bones and pieces of roasts or unused meat may be cut
into small pieces and used for soup stock. No smoked or charred pieces of
meat or bone should be used, however. Stock may be colored with caramel,
provided the sugar has been cooked sufficiently to lose its sweetness.
CUTS OF BEEF (see Figure 56).--The feeding, care, and age of an animal
have much to do with the _quality_ of its meat. It is considered that
good beef is obtained from an animal four or five years old. Beef should
be firm, of bright red color, and of fine grain. There should also be a
generous supply of suet. The latter should be dry and easily crumbled. In
most markets, meat is made more tender by allowing it to hang for several
days at a temperature near freezing.
The _cost_ of the different cuts of meat varies greatly. The
difference in cost is based upon the tenderness of the cut of meat, and
upon the demand,--not upon the nutritive value. Prices vary in different
localities, and in different seasons.
The _waste_ of a cut of meat is a factor which the housekeeper needs
to consider in determining the cost of meat. The cuts of meat containing
no waste may be "cheaper" than some cuts whose price per pound is lower.
[Illustration: Adapted from diagram in _University of Illinois_
Bulletin, No 158 FIGURE 56.--CUTS OF BEEF.]
The line dividing the rib and loin cuts and the plate and flank, marks the
division of the beef into hind and fore quarters. The position of the
various cuts is indicated by letters. The names of the cuts are indicated
around the outer boundary of the diagram.
The closely spaced lines such as shown in the round cut indicate that the
cut is sliced into steaks, while the more widely spaced lines such as
shown in the rib cut, indicate that the cut is separated into pieces for
roasting or stewing. The numerals indicate the number of steaks or pieces
into which a cut is usually divided.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 56. CUTS OF BEEF
HIND QUARTER
NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING
ROUND A. Rump. Pot-roasting.
1. Rump piece (see Figure Stewing.
57). Corning.
B. Round (not including Sauteing.
rump and shank). Stewing.
2-14. Round steaks (see Braising.
Figure 54). Pot-roasting.
C. Horseshoe or Heel. Pot-roasting.
15. Pot roast. Stewing.
D. Hind shank.
16. Knuckle soup bone. Soup-making.
17-19. Soup bones.
LOIN E. Sirloin. Broiling
1-4. Round-bone sirloin Roasting (when cut into
steaks (see Figure 48). thick pieces
5-6. Flat-bone sirloin
steaks (see Figure 47).
7. Hip-bone sirloin steak
(see Figure 46).
F. Porterhouse. Broiling.
8-15. Porterhouse steaks Roasting (when cut into
(see Figure 45). thick pieces).
16-18. Club or Delmonico
steaks (see Figure 44).
FLANK G. Flank steak (see Figure 59). Sauteing.
Rolling and Braising
H-H. Flank stew. Stewing.
Corning.
FORE QUARTER
NAME AND FORM OF CUT METHOD OF COOKING
RIB I. Rib roasts. Roasting.
1-4. Prime-rib roasts (see
Figures 49 and 50).
CHUCK J. Chuck roasts and steaks
1. Chuck-rib roast (see Braising.
Figures 51 and 52). Pot-roasting.
2-9. Chuck or shoulder steaks Broiling.
(see Figure 55). Sauteing.
10-13. Pot roasts.
NOTE.--In some localities, a pot
roast is cut from the lower portion
of the chuck. It is called Cross
Rib, Boston Cut, or English Cut
(see Figure 58).
14. Clod, no bone (over knuckle
soup bone).
L. Neck. Stewing.
15. Stew. Soup-making.
Corning.
PLATE M. Rib ends. Stewing.
1, 2. Stews. Soup-making.
Corning.
N. Navel. Stewing.
3. Stew. Soup-making.
Corning.
O. Brisket. Stewing.
4. Stew. Soup-making.
Corning.
FORE P. Shin.
SHANK 1. Stew.
2. Knuckle soup bone (underneath Stewing.
clod, _J_, 14). Soup-making.
3-6. Soup bones ("3" underneath
clod, _J_, 14).
Skirt steak,--diaphragm inside of Rolling and Braising.
ribs (see Figure 59). Stewing.
Tail. Soup-making.
QUESTIONS
Other than the differences in cost, what advantages are there in using
tough cuts of meat for soup?
Name at least three cuts of meat that would be suitable for soup-making.
Give the price per pound of these cuts.
In soup-making, what is the purpose of cutting the meat into pieces and of
cracking the bone?
Why should salt be added to the water in which meat is soaked (see
Experiment 56)?
LESSON LXIII
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (B)
EXAMINATION OF COLD BEEF STOCK.--Examine the beef stock of the previous
lesson. Why has the fat risen to the top (see Experiment 35)? Why is fat
cooked with meat and bone in making soup stock? What use can be made of
the fat after removing it from the stock? Remove the fat from the stock.
Stir the stock with a spoon. How do you account for its jellylike
consistency? From what material has the gelatine been formed? What solid
material is found in the stock? Should this be strained out when the stock
is used for soup? Explain your answer (see Experiment 54).
VEGETABLE SOUP
2 quarts beef stock
2 tablespoonfuls fat
1 onion, sliced
1 carrot
1 turnip
1/2 stalk celery or dried celery leaves
Heat the fat and sliced onion. Cook until the onion is browned; add a
small quantity of water. Cut the vegetables into dice, add them to the
water containing browned onion and cook until the vegetables are tender.
Add the beef stock to the vegetables and vegetable stock; heat; evaporate,
if necessary, and then serve.
The vegetables may be strained from the soup, and cooked rice, macaroni,
or barley added; or the rice, macaroni, or barley may be cooked with the
vegetables. Pearl barley should be soaked in water before being cooked in
the stock.
Other vegetables may be used for soup-making, as tomatoes, green peas,
asparagus, and cauliflower. Indeed, ingenuity in combining flavors and
utilizing "left overs" should form no small part of soup-making.
EXAMINATION OF MEAT LEFT FROM SOUP-MAKING.--Which contains the more
nutriment,--beef stock or the meat from which the stock was prepared? What
valuable protein material does the solid meat contain (see _Protein in
Meat_)? Taste a bit of the meat. What does it lack? In what does the
flavoring of this meat exist? What can be added to this "left over" meat
as a substitute for its flavor? In the recipe for Baked Hash (below), what
supplies flavor to the meat?
BAKED HASH
l 1/2 cupfuls chopped meat and fat
1/3 cupful (or more) boiling water
1 1/2 cupfuls mashed potatoes or stock
Salt and pepper
1 cupful cracker crumbs, _or_
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful scraped onion
Chopped parsley
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Mix all the ingredients, except the fat and crumbs. Add enough water or
stock to moisten all ingredients. Place the mixture in a buttered baking-
dish. Mix the fat with the bread or cracker crumbs. Cover the hash mixture
with the crumbs, and bake slowly until the meat is thoroughly heated and
the crumbs browned. Serve at once.
LESSON LXIV
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (C)
ROLLED BEEFSTEAK
1 pound round steak
1 cupful soft bread crumbs
1/8 teaspoonful ground cloves
Pepper
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1 small onion, chopped
Hot water or milk, salt, pepper, flour and fat
[Illustration: FIGURE 57.--RUMP.]
Cut round steak of 1/2 inch thickness into pieces 3 by 4 inches. Make a
stuffing of the bread crumbs, chopped onions, cloves, salt, pepper, with
enough hot water or milk to moisten. Spread the stuffing over the pieces
of steak, roll up each piece and tie it with a piece of string, or skewer
it with toothpicks. Dredge generously with flour and add salt and pepper.
Brown in beef drippings or other fat, cover with boiling water, and simmer
for 1 1/2 hours or until tender. Remove the strings or toothpicks, and
serve the meat with the sauce in which it was cooked.
If the meat has not been cut thin enough, it may be pounded with a wooden
potato masher or mallet to make it sufficiently thin.
BEEF STEW
2 pounds beef
1/4 cupful flour
2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
1 onion cut into slices
1 quart hot water
2 carrots, cut in dice
1 turnip, cut in dice
4 potatoes, cut in dice
1 tablespoonful kitchen bouquet
Remove the fat from the meat to be stewed; cut the meat into 1-inch
pieces. Dredge the meat with the flour; add the salt and pepper. Try out
the fat in a frying pan; remove the scraps. Brown the onion and then the
meat in the hot fat. Add the hot water and pieces of bone and cook in the
frying pan for 2 hours at a low temperature; or turn into a double boiler
and cook for the same length of time. Add vegetables, except potatoes, and
cook for I hour longer; add the potatoes 1/2 hour before the stew is done.
If desired, more flour,--mixed with enough cold water to pour easily,--may
be added when the potatoes are added. Remove the bone, add kitchen
bouquet, and serve.
THICKENING THE SAUCE OF MEAT COOKED IN WATER.--When meat is dipped in
flour, then browned in fat, and finally cooked in water, the flour
thickens the water and forms a sauce around the meat. Usually, however,
more flour needs to be added to the sauce to make it sufficiently thick.
Sometimes directions for adding a flour-and-water paste to the hot meat
stock are given, but unless the flour-and-water paste is cooked for some
time (boiled for 5 minutes at least) the sauce does not have a pleasing
flavor. This is because the starch is insufficiently cooked or the flour
is not browned. It has been found much more satisfactory to sprinkle a
little extra flour into the hot fat while browning the floured meat. Thus
the sauce is made smooth, and the starch cooked thoroughly by the time the
sauce is ready to serve.
QUESTIONS
If round steak has been cut too thick for rolling, what is a practical way
of making it of one half inch thickness?
For what purpose is rolled steak browned in fat before cooking in water?
Explain why the rolled steak is cooked in water at simmering rather than
at boiling temperature.
What is the purpose of dredging these meats in flour?
Why are not the vegetables added to the Beef Stew when the boiling water
is added? Why are not the potatoes added with the other vegetables?
Why is the bone added to the Beef Stew?
Name at least two cuts of beef that would be suitable for Beef Stew. What
are the prices per pound of these cuts?
LESSON LXV
BEEF: METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS (D)
SWISS STEAK
1 1/2 pounds round steak, cut 1 to 1 1/2 inches thick
1/2 to 1 cupful flour
Suet or bacon fat
1/2 onion, sliced
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash pepper
With the edge of a saucer, pound the flour into both sides of the steak.
In a frying pan, put the suet or bacon fat and brown the onion in it. Then
brown both sides of the floured meat in the fat. Cover with boiling water
and let the meat cook at simmering temperature either on top of the range
or in the oven from 1 1/2 to 2 hours or until it is tender. Add enough
salt and pepper to season the meat. If necessary, evaporate the sauce
around the meat until it is of sufficient thickness to serve as Brown
Sauce. Serve the meat and sauce hot.
If desired, the meat may be stewed in tomato juice instead of water. (If
tomato is added, what kind of frying pan (_i.e._ of what material)
should be used in cooking the meat? See _Suggestions for Cooking
Fruits._)
This variation may also be made: One half green pepper may be chopped and
sprinkled over the surface of the steak while the latter is simmering. The
onion may be omitted, if desired.
POT ROAST
3 pounds beef
Flour
Salt pork or suet
1/2 bay leaf
6 peppercorns
Salt and pepper
1/4 cupful each,--diced carrot, turnip, onion, and celery
[Illustration: FIGURE 58.--CROSS RIB, BOSTON CUT, OR ENGLISH CUT]
Try out the fat and remove the scraps. Dredge the meat generously with
flour and brown the entire surface in the fat. Place the meat on a rack in
the kettle; surround it with the vegetables and spices, and season it with
salt and pepper. Add 3 cupfuls of boiling water; cover closely and simmer
for 4 hours. Turn after the second hour. Serve hot both the meat and the
sauce containing vegetables.
NOTE--This meat may be saved and used in the following lesson regarding
the uses of cooked beef
[Illustration: Courtesy of _Bureau of Publications_ Teachers College
FIGURE 59--SKIRT STEAK, FLANK STEAK.]
SUMMARY OF THE METHODS OF COOKING TOUGH CUTS OF MEAT--There are many
recipes for cooking meats All, however, are modifications of a few
methods. Moist heat must be applied to tough cuts of meat (see _Tough
Cuts of Beef_) The methods of cooking such cuts can be summed up as
follows
1 _Soup-making_--Soak meat, bone, and fat in cold salted water, and
then cook below boiling temperature in the water.
2. "_Boiling" or Stewing_.--Plunge meat into boiling water; boil
until well seared; then cook in water below the boiling temperature.
3. _Pot-roasting and Braising_.--Sear meat by boiling or browning in
fat, then cook in steam. If the cooking is done on the top of the range,
it is called pot-roasting. If it is done in the oven, it is called
braising.
QUESTIONS
What is the chief difference between pot-roasting and braising?
Why is it not necessary to baste meats cooked by these methods?
What is the difference between braising and roasting meats (see
_Roasting_)? Why is braising suitable for tough cuts, and roasting
for tender cuts (see Experiments 51 and 52)?
Name at least three cuts of meat suitable for pot roasts. Give the price
per pound of each.
LESSON LXVI
BEEF: USES OF COOKED BEEF
"LEFT OVERS"--Small pieces of cooked meat should not be thrown away; they
can be used in many ways. Even though the meat has been cooked so as to
extract its juices, there still remains practically all of the myosin, and
this is a valuable constituent. If the juices have been drawn from the
meat, a little fresh meat should be added to it, or it should be seasoned
well with condiments, spices, or herbs. Water in which the meat has been
cooked, and "left over" gravy, should be utilized in making sauces for
cooked meats. Cooked meat of tender cut should merely be reheated, not
recooked. Hence it is usually well to cut it into pieces or chop it fine
in order to heat it quickly.
As in soup-making, ingenuity in combining and using "left over" materials
is required in making meat dishes. Stewed tomatoes can be substituted for
stock or gravy, and one starchy food substituted for another. The recipes
here given simply serve as suggestions. The ingredients and proportions
should be changed to utilize available materials.
SCALLOPED MEAT
2 cupfuls chopped meat
2 tablespoonfuls fat
3 tablespoonfuls flour
l-1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
1 teaspoonful scraped onion or chopped parsley
l-1/2 cupfuls milk, stock, or water
2 cupfuls buttered crumbs (See _Crumbs for Scalloped Dishes_.)
Make a Brown Sauce of the fat, salt, pepper, flour, onion or parsley, and
milk or stock. Mix with the meat. Butter the crumbs, and place about one
half cupful in the bottom of the buttered baking-dish. Add the meat
mixture, and cover the top with the remainder of the crumbs. Bake in the
oven until the mixture is thoroughly heated and the crumbs are brown.
_Cold fish_ may be shredded and used in the same way.
COTTAGE PIE.--Use the same ingredients as for Scalloped Meat, substituting
mashed potatoes for buttered bread crumbs. Place the potato only on the
top of the mixture. A little nutmeg may be substituted for the onion.
QUESTIONS
How does meat left from beef stock differ from fresh meat in nutritive
value? How does it differ in taste?
Name a starchy food that could be substituted for potatoes in Baked Hash.
Why are spices and herbs added to left over meat dishes?
Name at least three vegetable-and-meat combinations that would be
desirable for hash.
How many cupfuls of chopped cooked meat can be obtained from one pound of
fresh meat?
Why should cooked meat of tender cut be reheated rather than recooked?
LESSON LXVII
GELATINE (A)
EXPERIMENT 57: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful of
cold water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Cover and let stand a few minutes.
Examine. Has the water combined with the gelatine? Press a bit of the
gelatine with a spoon. How does it compare with the dry gelatine as to
hardness?
EXPERIMENT 58: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON GELATINE.--Pour 1 teaspoonful
boiling water on 1/4 teaspoonful gelatine. Place the mixture over hot
water. Stir. What is the effect of boiling water on gelatine?
NOTE.--Use the gelatine from these two experiments for the preparation of
the gelatine dessert of the lesson.
GELATINE.--When the beef stock of Lesson LXII was strained and cooled,
what material, other than fat and protein, was present in it? From what
substance in the meat and bone was this material formed (see _Protein in
Meat_; _Use of Bone and Fat in Soup-making_; _Examination of
Cold Beef Stock_)?
The gelatine which is found at market is prepared from the bones, gristle,
skin, and other portions of animals. Although gelatine may be purchased in
several different forms, housekeepers find the granulated or pulverized
gelatine the most convenient to use.
One ounce of granulated gelatine will stiffen 1 1/2 to 2 quarts of jelly.
In hot weather more is required. If fruit, vegetables, or nuts are to be
molded in the jelly, use 1 1/2 ounces of gelatine.
Gelatine should be first hydrated (_i.e._ combined with water) by
means of cold water, and then dissolved in boiling water.
THE VALUE OF GELATINE.--Gelatine is an incomplete protein, _i.e._ it
is lacking in certain amino acids and hence while a good fuel, it does
not, without the help of other proteins, both build and repair the body.
The usual gelatine dish contains such a small quantity of gelatine that
the question of its food value may be disregarded. The sugar and fruit,
however, that are invariably used in gelatine dishes give them food value.
Since gelatine liquefies readily by heating, it is valuable in liquid
diet.
LEMON JELLY
1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine _or_
1/4 ounce shredded gelatine
1/4 cupful cold water
3/4 cupful sugar
Salt
1 1/2 cupfuls boiling water
1/4 cupful lemon juice
Mix the gelatine and cold water. Let them stand until the water is
absorbed. Add the boiling water, sugar, and salt. Stir until the gelatine
is dissolved completely, then add the fruit juice, strain, and pour into a
mold. Set in a cool place to harden. _Gelatine mixtures should be
covered while soaking and cooling_.
_To remove jelly from the mold_, apply a cloth wrung out of hot water
to the outside of the mold.
FRUIT JELLY
Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and allow to cool until it begins to
stiffen. Peel oranges and bananas; cut them into small pieces or slices.
Cut nuts into pieces. Stir in the prepared fruit and nuts. Turn into a
mold, cover, and put in a cool place until firm. Serve cold, with or
without cream.
Other fruits may be used instead of those mentioned in the recipe. If
pineapple is used it must be cooked before adding to jelly. Pineapple
contains an enzyme which liquefies gelatine. Hence jelly containing fresh
pineapple fails to stiffen.
WHIPPED JELLY
When a gelatine mixture is cool and begins to stiffen, it may be whipped
with a Dover egg beater. Air beaten into a gelatine dessert changes it in
appearance and quantity.
Lemon Jelly may be varied as follows:
Prepare lemon jelly mixture. Cover and set aside to cool. Then divide into
two portions. Add fruit to one portion and turn it into a mold and set
aside in a cool place.
Whip the second portion of jelly. When the jelly in the mold is stiff,
pour the whipped jelly over it and set aside to cool.
When ready to serve, unmold, garnish with fruit or nuts, if desired. Serve
with top milk, plain or whipped cream or Custard Sauce.
QUESTIONS
What is the purpose of covering the gelatine while soaking and cooling?
Why is it necessary to dissolve the gelatine completely?
What would be the effect of adding cold fruit juice to the hot gelatine
mixture? What must be the temperature of water to dissolve gelatine? From
this explain why the gelatine should be dissolved before the fruit juice
is added.
What is the purpose of straining gelatine mixtures?
Through what should gelatine mixtures be strained?
Of what material should jelly molds be made? Why?
How are jellies removed from the molds without breaking or marring the
jellies? Explain.
When fruit is to be added to jelly, what is the purpose of allowing the
jelly to cool and almost stiffen before adding the fruit?
LESSON LXVIII
GELATINE (B)
SNOW PUDDING
1 tablespoonful granulated gelatine
1/4 cupful cold water
1 cupful sugar
Salt
1 cupful boiling water
1/4 cupful lemon juice
2 or 3 egg whites
Mix these ingredients (except egg whites) as for Lemon Jelly. Set aside to
cool. Beat the egg whites until stiff. When the gelatine mixture begins to
stiffen, beat it (surrounded by ice water) until it becomes frothy, then
add the beaten egg whites and continue beating until the mixture begins to
stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place. Serve with
chilled Custard Sauce.
For the sauce, follow the recipe for Soft Custard, using egg yolks
(instead of whole eggs) and 3/8 cupful of sugar (instead of 1/4 cupful).
In case only 2 egg yolks are used in making the custard, 1 teaspoonful of
corn-starch may be used for additional thickening, as suggested.
The addition of 1/2 cupful of chopped nuts to Snow Pudding makes a
pleasing variation. The nuts should be added just before turning the
mixture into the mold.
Snow Pudding may be prepared by whipping plain Lemon Jelly as directed in
the previous lesson and serving it with Custard Sauce. The use of egg
whites, however, adds to the food value of the dessert and makes it more
tasty.
PINEAPPLE BAVARIAN CREAM
1 tablespoonful gelatine
1/4 cupful cold water
1 small can (8 ounces) shredded pineapple
Boiling water
1/2 cupful sugar
Salt
2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice
1/2 cupful (or more) whipped cream
Mix the gelatine and cold water and let stand until the water is absorbed.
Drain the sirup from the shredded pineapple and add enough water to it to
make 1 1/2 cupfuls. Heat the pineapple sirup and water to boiling point.
Then pour it over the gelatine mixture. Stir until the gelatine is
dissolved. Add the sugar and salt and continue stirring until they are
dissolved. Add the lemon juice. Cover and set aside in a cold place until
the mixture begins to stiffen.
Whip the cream. Add the shredded pineapple and whipped cream to the
gelatine mixture. Surround this with ice water and beat until the mixture
again begins to stiffen. Turn into a mold and set aside in a cool place.
Serve cold.
QUESTIONS
What is the price per package of gelatine?
How many ounces are there in one package? How many tablespoonfuls in one
package?
Determine the cost of Lemon Jelly. Of Snow Pudding. What is the difference
in the cost?
Which is lighter in weight,--beaten egg white or plain Lemon Jelly? From
this, explain why it is necessary to set the gelatine mixture aside until
it begins to stiffen before adding the beaten egg-white in the preparation
of Snow Pudding.
Explain why the gelatine mixture should be in a slightly stiffened
condition before the whipped cream is added to it in the preparation of
Bavarian Cream.
LESSON LXIX
FISH (A)
EXPERIMENT 59: EFFECT OF SOAKING FISH IN WATER.--Soak a piece of fresh
fish in water for at least 10 minutes. Strain the water and heat it to the
boiling point. What foodstuff is found in the water? What practical
application can be drawn from the result of this experiment as to washing
fish?
EXPERIMENT 60: EFFECT OF BOILING FISH RAPIDLY.--Boil a small piece of
fresh fish rapidly for a few minutes. What happens to the fish? Judging
from this experiment, what care must be taken in cooking and serving fish?
From the results of Experiments 59 and 60, which method,--boiling or
baking,--would be more desirable for cooking fish? Why?
COMPARISON OF BEEF WITH FISH.--Fish is an animal food containing protein.
It differs from beef in structure and composition. Most fish contains more
water than does beef, hence it has not as high a nutritive value. In the
quantity of protein, however, fish is about equal to beef; its protein is
also complete. Hence many consider it quite as nutritious as beef. It is
lacking in extractives, and needs careful seasoning.
FAT OF FISH.--The fat content of fish varies greatly in different kinds of
fish. A few fish, such as salmon for example, contain considerable fat.
The edible portion of most fish, however, contains less fat than beef. The
ease with which we digest fish depends upon the fat it contains. Fish
containing the least quantity of fat is the most easily digested.
CLASSES OF FISH.--According to the quantity of fat it contains, fish may
be divided into two classes: _(_a_) dry, or_ lean _fish_,
and _(_b_) oily fish_. Cod, haddock, smelt, flounder, perch,
bass, brook trout, and pike are dry, or lean fish. Salmon, shad, mackerel,
herring, eel, halibut, lake trout, and white fish are oily fish. (This
latter group contains from 5 to 10 per cent of fat.)
Fish may also be divided into two classes, according to the water in which
they live, fish from the sea being termed _salt-water fish_, and
those from rivers and lakes _fresh-water fish_
Since fish contains about as much protein as does beef, it should be
generally used as a meat alternative. Inspection of the fish found at
market will doubtless acquaint you with many kinds of fish.
SALMON TIMBALE OR LOAF
1 can salmon
1 cupful soft bread crumbs
1 1/2 teaspoonfuls chopped parsley
1/2 teaspoonful salt
Pepper
1 or 2 eggs
1 tablespoonful lemon juice
1/4 to 1/2 cupful milk
Mix all the ingredients thoroughly, adding enough milk to moisten. Pour
into buttered timbale molds or into one bowl. Place on a rack in a pan,
surround with hot water, and cover. Bake in the oven or cook on top of the
range until the fish mixture is firm and is heated thoroughly. Turn out,
and serve with White Sauce to which chopped parsley has been added (for
White Sauce, see _White Sauce for Vegetables_. For the fat of the
White Sauce, use the oil drained from the salmon).
Peas in White Sauce make a pleasing addition to Salmon Timbale, _Tuna
fish_ or other cooked fish may be used instead of salmon.
CASSEROLE OF FISH
Cook 1 cupful of rice or barley (see page 85). Measure the ingredients
given in Salmon Timbale or Loaf, using salmon or any kind of canned or
cooked fish, and prepare a fish loaf.
Let the cereal cool slightly after cooking. Then line a baking dish or a
mold with about three fourths of the cooked rice or barley, pressing it in
the dish firmly with a spoon. Put the fish mixture in the cavity and cover
it with the remainder of the cereal. Steam the food 30 to 45 minutes. Turn
from the mold and serve hot with White Sauce as directed for Salmon
Timbale.
Any kind of _cooked_ and _chopped meat_ may be used instead of
fish and combined with rice or barley as described above. QUESTIONS
What purpose do the eggs serve in Salmon Loaf?
Think of the effect of intense heat upon the different ingredients in this
fish mixture, and then explain why it should not cook for a long time or
at a high temperature.
What is the price per can of salmon? Of tuna fish?
Name two fresh fish that are in market now. What is the price per pound of
each?
LESSON LXX
FISH (B)
FRESHNESS OF FISH.--Fish is a food which spoils very quickly, and which is
dangerous to eat if not fresh. For this reason the housekeeper should be
able to judge of the freshness of fish. In fresh fish:
(_a_) The flesh is firm and elastic, especially along the backbone.
(6) The gills are bright.
(_c_) The eyes are bright and bulging.
The sinking of fish when placed in water has also been given as an
indication of its fitness for use as food. Decayed fish floats on water.
Since fish spoils readily, it must be frozen if kept for any length of
time. Frozen fish is not undesirable provided it is kept in a frozen state
until used; it should be thawed out by placing it in cold water _just
before cooking_. Fish that has been thawed out and kept for some time
before cooking may contain at times poisonous substances called
_ptomaines_. Ptomaines in food may produce distressing effects or may
even prove fatal.
Fresh fish should be kept in a cool place until used, but should not be
placed uncovered in the refrigerator. It may, however, be tightly
covered,--put in a tin pail or glass jar,--and placed in the
refrigerator. Before cooking, fish should be washed thoroughly with a wet
cloth. On account of the odor, all utensils used in the cooking of fish
should be washed in salted water.
BAKED FISH
Clean and wash a large fish. The head or tail may or may not be removed
before baking. If the head is retained, the eyes should be removed before
serving; this is done more easily after cooking. If the tail is retained,
it should be wrapped in oiled paper to prevent it from burning.
[Illustration: FIGURE 60.--FISH KETTLE, SHOWING RACK]
Sprinkle salt on the inside of the fish and also on the outside, and then
fill with stuffing. Skewer the cut edges of the fish together or close the
incision as follows:
Hold the edges of the skin together and thrust toothpicks across the
opening, through both cut edges of the fish. Then fasten the opening by
_"lacing"_ string around the toothpicks. Cut gashes on each side
across the fish and put strips of salt
pork into them or insert strips of pork with a larding needle. Oil a
baking sheet or the rack of a fish kettle (see Figure 60) and place the
fish on it, forming the fish into an "S" by means of skewers. Place the
sheet in a baking-pan and add pieces of salt pork. Bake 15 minutes for
each pound, or until the flesh can be separated easily from the bones by
means of a skewer or a fork. If the baking-pan is uncovered, baste every
10 minutes. When done, carefully remove the fish from the pan and place on
a platter, garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve with _Tomato
Sauce_ or _Sauce for Fish_ (see below).
In the absence of a baking sheet, two well oiled strips of muslin may be
placed across the baking-pan, underneath the fish. When baked, the fish
may be removed easily from the pan by means of the strips of muslin.
STUFFING FOR FISH
2 cupfuls soft bread crumbs
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Cayenne
1 teaspoonful scraped onion
1 teaspoonful chopped parsley
1 teaspoonful capers or chopped pickles
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Mix the ingredients in the order given (see _Crumbs for Scalloped
Dishes_)
SAUCE FOR FISH
3 tablespoons butter or substitute
1/4 cupful flour
1/2 teaspoonful salt
Cayenne
l 3/4 cupfuls hot water
1/4 cupful vinegar _or_ 1 large lemon,--juice
1 tablespoonful chopped parsley
Prepare the first five ingredients as in White Sauce (see _White Sauce
for Vegetables_. Then add vinegar or lemon juice and chopped parsley.
Serve hot over fish.
Hard-cooked eggs make a pleasing addition to this sauce. Chop the whole
eggs or slice the whites and mash the yolks with a fork; then add to the
sauce.
QUESTIONS
Why should fish not be left uncovered in the refrigerator?
Why should fish be cleaned by wiping with a cloth, rather than by placing
in a pan of water (see Experiment 59)?
What is the purpose of placing fish on a baking sheet or placing strips of
muslin underneath for baking (see Experiment 60)?
How is fish tested for sufficient cooking?
How can the odor be removed from utensils in which fish has been cooked?
LESSON LXXI
FISH (C)
PLANKED (BROILED) FISH
An oak plank,--one inch in thickness and as long and wide as a large
platter,--is a satisfactory device for broiling fish. For planking or
broiling, fish steaks or thin, flat fish, such as mackerel or bluefish,
should be selected.
Clean the fish, then place it, skin side down, on the plank. Sprinkle with
salt and pepper, and spread with softened or melted butter. Place in the
broiling oven and broil until done, usually 15 or 20 minutes.
A border of potato puff mixture makes a pleasing addition to the fish (see
_Potato Puff_). A few minutes before the fish is done, remove it from
the oven and arrange the potato mixture around it. (A pastry bag and tube
may be used for this purpose.) Brush the potato with egg diluted with
water (1 tablespoonful of water to 1 egg). Return the plank to the oven to
finish broiling the fish and to brown the potatoes. Serve the fish and
potatoes on the plank.
FRIED OR SAUTEED FISH
Clean fish and season with salt and pepper. Mix equal parts of corn-meal
and flour. Dip the fish in this mixture. Fry in deep fat or saute. Drain
and serve with a sauce. Dried bread or cracker crumbs, and egg may be used
for dipping instead of the corn-meal and flour mixture (see _Fried
Oysters_).
FISH CHOWDER
1/2 pound salt fish _or_
2 pounds fresh fish
1 quart potatoes cut in pieces
2 tablespoonfuls bacon drippings _or_ other fat
1 onion, chopped
2 tablespoonfuls corn-meal
1 pint milk
Crackers
If salt fish is used, hold it under running water for a few minutes
(why?), then shred it.
If fresh fish is used, Wash it, remove bones if possible, and cut it into
six or eight pieces.
Brown the onion in the fat. Into a kettle put layers of fish and potatoes
and add a little browned onion and corn-meal to each layer. Cover with hot
water and boil gently until the potatoes are tender. Add the milk and
continue heating until the mixture is hot. Just before serving, add a few
crackers broken into pieces.
QUESTIONS
State the advantages of using a plank for broiling fish.
Why select fish steaks or thin, flat fish for broiling?
What is the purpose of brushing the potato mixture with egg?
Give two reasons for using well seasoned sauces and stuffing with fish
(see _Comparison of Beef with Fish_).
LESSON LXXII
LEGUMES (A)
THE LEGUMES include peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts. These plants bear
pods containing seeds; the seeds--green or ripened--and the pods of some
of the plants are commonly used as foods.
PROTEIN IN SEEDS.--Many foods rich in protein belong to the animal
kingdom. The seeds of plants, however, contain protein. The common
cereals, wheat and corn, contain almost 10 per cent of protein, while oats
contain about 16 per cent. But the dried seeds of legumes exceed all seeds
in protein content. Peas, beans, lentils, and peanuts contain more protein
than most cuts of meat. About 25 per cent of their composition is protein.
Soy-beans are much richer in protein than any of the other legumes. They
contain about 37 per cent.
It has been mentioned that proteins differ in quality. Although the dried
legumes are especially rich in protein, they do not all contain complete
protein. With the exception of peanuts and soy-beans, these foods need to
be supplemented with other protein-rich foods such as milk, eggs, and
cheese.
Since the dried legumes are a much cheaper source of protein than meat,
they should be used oftener than they are. Legumes supplemented with milk
or combined with a small quantity of meat furnish economical sources of
protein food. The protein in legumes is called _legumin_.
COOKING DRIED LEGUMES.--The dried legumes should be soaked overnight in
water, to which a little baking soda has been added. These vegetables
require long cooking to soften them, and also to develop flavor. A little
soda added to the water in which they are cooked also aids in softening
them and neutralizes the vegetable acid found in some of the legumes.
During the long heating, dried legumes break up, if not carefully cooked.
Dried soy-beans have a strong flavor which is objectionable. This can be
removed as follows: Soak the beans overnight in a large quantity of hot
water, drain, add fresh water and baking soda (about 1 teaspoonful for
each cupful of beans), and cook the beans for about 40 minutes, then
drain, add more water, and cook until they are tender. Dried soy-beans
require long cooking,--usually 4 or 5 hours. After the 40-minute cooking,
they may be drained, heated in more water, and then placed in a
_fireless cooker_. The _pressure cooker_ may be used effectively
in cooking these dried beans.
Soy-beans may also be baked after the 40-minute cooking in the same manner
as navy beans (see _Boston Baked Beans_). Serve cooked soy-beans with
Tomato Sauce.
Although dried legumes are comparatively cheap, the fuel required to cook
them for so long a time may increase their cost to a considerable extent.
In cooking these foods, care should be taken to utilize fuel that is
already required for some other purpose. The _fireless cooker_ is
most satisfactory in cooking these dried foods.
BOSTON BAKED BEANS
2 cupfuls navy beans
2 tablespoonfuls molasses or brown sugar
2 teaspoonfuls salt
2 ounces salt pork or bacon
1/2 teaspoonful mustard
Soak the beans overnight as directed in _Cooking Dried Legumes_. Add
a little baking soda and gradually heat to the boiling point. Then add the
seasoning to the beans; place half of them in a bean crock; and add the
pork which has been scraped and scored. (To score salt pork cut gashes in
it nearly to the rind.) Add the remainder of the beans and enough water to
cover them slightly. Bake in a slow oven (250 degrees F.) 6 to 12 hours.
Keep the beans below the boiling point and see that they are covered with
liquid.
_Lentils_ may be baked in the same way as beans.
SALTED PEANUTS
1/2 cupful salt
1 cupful shelled unroasted peanuts
3 cupfuls water
2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
Remove the skins from the peanuts by placing them in boiling water for 3
minutes; drain, cover with cold water; and then slip off the skins. Heat
the salt and water, and when boiling, add the peanuts. _Cook 8
minutes_. Drain, rinse off the salt, place in a baking-pan, add the
fat, and bake until slightly browned, stirring often. Turn from the pan on
paper.
QUESTIONS
Why should dried vegetables be soaked in water before cooking?
Measure the beans after soaking. How much have they increased in bulk?
What is the reason for keeping the beans below the boiling point while
baking?
Devise a method for preparing Baked Beans, when they can remain in the
oven but an hour or two.
How are fatty meats cleaned? Why can they not be cleaned by washing in
water (see Experiment 35)?
What is the purpose of scoring the salt pork or bacon?
What is the advantage of seasoning peanuts by cooking in strong salted
water rather than sprinkling salt over them after browning?
What are the prices of beans and raw peanuts per pound?
How many cupfuls in a pound of each?
LESSON LXXIII
LEGUMES (B)
BEAN SOUP
2 cupfuls beans
3 quarts water
Baking soda
1 piece of celery root _or_
1/2 teaspoonful celery salt _or_
Dried celery leaves
l 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
2 slices onion
Cayenne
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/4 teaspoonful mustard
2 tablespoonfuls flour
Soak the beans overnight; add soda, onion, and celery. Cook slowly until
the beans are soft. Add more water, if more than one quart evaporates.
Press through a strainer. Use the remainder of the ingredients in making a
sauce. The strained beans should be used as the liquid for the sauce (see
_Thick Soups_).
Slices of lemon and of hard-cooked eggs may be used as a garnish for this
soup.
SPLIT PEA SOUP
1 cupful split peas
2 1/2 quarts water
Baking soda
2 slices onion
1 pint milk
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
l 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt
3 tablespoonfuls flour
2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
Soak the peas overnight; add soda and onion; and cook slowly until the
peas are soft. Press through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of the
remainder of the ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.
Cooking a ham bone with the split peas changes the flavor.
GREEN PEA SOUP
1 pint or can of peas
1/2 teaspoonful sugar
1 pint liquid round peas and water
Pepper
1 teaspoonful salt
1 1/2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute
1 pint milk
2 tablespoonfuls flour
Turn the peas into a saucepan; add the liquid, water, and sugar; and cook
until very soft. Press the peas through a strainer. Make a White Sauce of
the remaining ingredients. Add the strained peas, heat, and serve.
Peas too old to serve as a vegetable may be used for soup. Some of the
pods of fresh peas may be cooked with the peas.
CRISP CRACKERS
Spread thin crackers very lightly with butter. Brown in the oven and serve
with soup.
QUESTIONS
How should the water boil to prevent dried legumes from breaking (see
_Cooking Vegetables in Water_)?
What is the simplest way of thickening soup, if it is too thin? Too thick?
If a ham bone is cooked with split peas, what ingredient should be omitted
in making the soup? Why?
How many persons will these recipes for soup serve?
How many cupfuls in a pound of split peas? What is the cost per pound of
split peas? How much does one cupful of split peas increase in bulk by
soaking? What quantity of split peas would be equal to a can of peas? What
is the cost of a can of peas? How much is saved in making soup by using
split peas rather than green peas?
LESSON LXXIV
LEGUMES (C)
BEAN ROAST
1 cupful white beans, cooked
1 cupful roasted peanuts
1/2 cupful bread crumbs
1 teaspoonful salt
Speck pepper
1/2 cupful milk
Put the beans and peanuts through a food chopper, add the remaining
ingredients. Mix and shape into a loaf. Place in an oiled dish and bake 30
minutes in a moderate oven. Serve hot with Tomato Sauce.
PEANUT BUTTER SOUP
1 cupful peanut butter
1/2 cupful chopped celery
1 1/2 cupfuls water
3 cupfuls milk
2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
1 grated potato
Mix the peanut butter with I cupful of milk. Heat 2 cupfuls of milk in a
double boiler. Cook the celery in the water until the vegetable is tender.
Add the grated potato, cook, and stir until the mixture is thickened. Then
add it to the hot milk. Also add the peanut butter mixture and seasoning.
Heat until it is hot. Beat with a Dover egg beater. Serve hot.
Dried celery leaves may be used instead of fresh celery.
QUESTIONS
Mention the nutrients contained in the food materials of Bean Roast and
Peanut Butter Soup. Discuss the value of each nutrient.
Calculate the cost of Bean Roast. How many persons will it serve?
How many persons will one pound of chopped beef serve? Estimate the
difference in cost of one serving of Bean Roast and of Chopped Steak.
What is the purpose of grated potato in Peanut Butter Soup? What substance
could be substituted for the grated potato? State the method of mixing and
cooking if the substitution were made.
RELATED WORK
LESSON LXXV
COST OF FOOD
FOODS DIFFER GREATLY IN COST.--One pound of rice costs much less than one
pound of beefsteak. One cut of meat may cost less per pound than another.
Twenty-five cents buys much less in weight of sweetbreads than of
beefsteak.
Many factors other than difference in cost must, however, be taken into
consideration when determining the value of foods.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO NUTRITIVE VALUE.--Foods differ in nutritive
value per pound. One pound of dried split peas contains more than three
times as much nutriment as one pound of fresh peas. The nutritive value of
a pound of sweetbreads is much less than that of a pound of beefsteak.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO REFUSE.--Although one cut of meat may sell for
more than another, the higher priced one may be cheaper because there is
less waste. In most localities flank steak costs more per pound than
shoulder steak; yet flank steak is the cheaper meat because it is all
edible, while there is about one fifth waste in most shoulder steak. One
pays for some refuse even when purchasing eggs.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO SEASON.--Most foods are higher in price when
out of season. Strawberries may cost seventy-five cents per quart in
February and twenty-five cents in the spring or summer months. An
unseasonable food is invariably expensive.
COST OF FOOD IN RELATION TO WEIGHT.--Food labels often contain valuable
information. The weight of the contents of a package, can, or bottle, and
sometimes the composition of food appears on them.
Packages, bottles, and cans of equal size do not always contain the same
quantity of foods. The shape or thickness of a container also affects the
quantity of its contents. By examining labels and noting weight and
composition, the price and quality of one brand of foods may be compared
with another.
Household scales are useful in checking up the weight of foods, such as
meats, fats, and vegetables. By weighing foods after they have been
purchased, a housekeeper can determine if a dealer is giving her that for
which she pays.
LESSENING THE COST OF FOODS.--There are many things, then, that the
thrifty buyer should take into consideration when purchasing foods. It is
one of the obligations of a woman who purchases and plans the foods for a
family to be careful of expense. The following statement concerning thrift
is both forceful and true:
"It is not beneath the dignity of any family to avoid useless expenditure
no matter how generous its income, and the intelligent housekeeper should
take as much pride in setting a good table, at a low price, as the
manufacturer does in lessening the cost of production in his
factory." [Footnote 56: _United States Department of Agriculture_,
Farmers' Bulletin 391, "Economical Use of Meat in the Home," p. 43.]
CALCULATION OF THE COST OF FOOD.--In counting the cost of foods, it is
necessary to know not only the price per pound, quart, dozen, or package,
but the measurement in cupfuls of the given weight. Most of the data for
the list given below can be obtained from labels on the containers and
from the notes on the weights and measures of various foods prepared from
the "Questions" of this text. The dashes indicate that data are not
required. The cost should be calculated to four decimal places.
FOODS COST MEASURE COST PER COST PER COST PER
PER IN CUPFUL TABLE- TEA-
POUND, CUPFULS SPOONFUL SPOONFUL
QUART, OF
ETC. POUND,
QUART,
ETC.
Apricots (dried) ----- -----
Baking Powder ----- -----
Beans, dried ----- -----
Butter
Butter
Substitute
Cheese ----- -----
Cocoa ----- -----
Coffee Heaping -----
Table-
spoonful
Corn-meal ----- -----
Corn-starch -----
Cream of Wheat ----- -----
Cream -----
Currants ----- -----
(dried)
Eggs (see ----- One -----
Experiment 41
Flour, white -----
Flour, whole wheat ----- -----
Flour, graham ----- -----
Gelatine -----
Lard -----
Macaroni ----- -----
Meat, chopped ----- -----
Milk ----- -----
Potatoes ----- One ----- -----
potato
Prunes (dried) ----- -----
Raisins (dried) ----- -----
Rice ----- -----
Rolled Oats ----- -----
Salt -----
Split Peas ----- -----
Sugar, brown ----- -----
Sugar, granulated ----- -----
Sugar, loaf One ----- -----
lump
Sugar, powdered ----- -----
Tapioca ----- -----
Tea -----
Vanilla ----- ----- -----
Vegetable Oil -----
Wheatena ----- -----
LESSON LXXVI
COOKING AND SERVING A BREAKFAST
Cook and serve a breakfast. The following menu is suggested: Oranges or
Baked Apples
Goldenrod Eggs
Baked Mush with Honey or Marmalade
Cocoa
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the breakfast with or
without a maid.
Calculate the cost of the meal. In determining the cost, use the data from
the previous lesson for the staple materials. The cost of fresh foods such
as oranges or apples may be secured from the one who did the marketing or
from the grocer's statement.
LESSON LXXVII
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cereal with Fruit
Poached Egg on Toast
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the Lesson.
LESSON LXXVIII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 57: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Set the table for the evening meal each day.
Cook at least one tough cut of meat each week.
Suggested Aims:
(1) To lay the cloth smooth and straight.
(2) To place the dishes in a neat and orderly way on the table.
(3) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining
table.
(4) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other
things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or
other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal
is being served.
(5) To prepare the tough meat so that it is tender, moist, and tasty.
(6) To determine the cost of meat.
DIVISION SEVEN
HEALTH AND GROWTH-PROMOTING FOODS,--RICH IN VITAMINES
LESSON LXXIX
VITAMINES--VEGETABLES OF DELICATE FLAVOR
VITAMINES.--In determining the proper diet for perfect nourishment,
scientists long since came to the conclusion that the body needed a
certain quantity of carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, and water. They
were all agreed that all these foodstuffs needed to be represented in the
foods making up a day's diet. Scientists also found that these foodstuffs
must exist in a certain proportion in a day's food,--that there should be
enough of each of the foodstuffs to meet the needs of the body. A diet made
up of foods in which all the foodstuffs were represented in the proper
proportion was termed a _balanced ration_.
Investigations of recent years, however, show that these foodstuffs alone
do not afford perfect nourishment. Much valuable scientific work is being
done on the question of adequate diet. It is found that _certain
substances_ contained in foods in small amounts are absolutely essential
in diet. When animals are fed foods containing only the foodstuffs
mentioned above and none of these other substances, they cease growing,
become diseased, and eventually die.
These materials so necessary to the growth and maintenance of animal life
are termed _Vitamines_ by some authorities. There are three classes
of Vitamines, called _Fat-soluble A_, _Water-soluble B_, and
_Water-soluble C_. It is now believed that there is at least one more
vitamine.
Although vitamines exist in foods only in minute quantities it is
necessary to use foods containing all the kinds of vitamines to promote
growth and to keep in health.
Fat-soluble A, especially with certain minerals, is thought to prevent
rickets and a disease of the eye called xerophthalmia. During the war,
because of inadequate diet, many cases of these diseases developed in
Europe.
Water-soluble B is called the _anti-neuritic vitamine_ because it is
necessary to prevent a disease called polyneuritis or beri-beri (see
_Polished and Unpolished Rice_).
Water-soluble C is called the _anti-scorbutic vitamine_ because it is
necessary to prevent a disease called scurvy.
FOODS CONTAINING FAT-SOLUBLE A are _milk_, _eggs_, and _leafy
vegetables_. Leafy vegetables include: spinach, lettuce, celery tops,
beet tops, Swiss chard, collards, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and onions.
Milk products, such as butter and cheese, and cod-liver oil also contain
fat-soluble A. It is also thought to be present in certain vegetables such
as carrots, which are not leafy vegetables. Not all fat foods contain fat-
soluble A. It does not exist in the vegetable oils.
It has been demonstrated that foods rich in fat-soluble A, especially
milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables, are most essential in diet. According to
McCollum, dry leaves contain 3 to 5 times as much total ash as do seeds;
the former are also especially rich in the important elements calcium,
sodium, and chlorine, in which the seed is poorest. Hence leafy vegetables
not only abound in the growth-promoting vitamine but in certain essential
minerals. Cereals, root vegetables, and meat need to be supplemented with
milk and leafy vegetables. Because milk, eggs, and leafy vegetables are so
valuable and essential in diet, these foods have been termed _protective
foods_. Fresh milk contains fat-soluble A and a small quantity of
water-soluble B and water-soluble C. Its value as a food has been
previously discussed. Doubtless the leafy vegetables are not as generally
and as constantly used as they should be. Root vegetables and cereals seem
to be a much more popular form of vegetable food. The pupil should realize
the importance of these foods and when possible explain their use in her
home. Learning to prepare leafy vegetables so as to retain their nutriment
and to make them appetizing would doubtless do much in promoting their
use.
FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE B.--Water-soluble B is more widely
distributed in foods than is fat-soluble A. It occurs for the most part,
however, in vegetable foods. Plants containing this vitamine include
seeds, root, stem, and leafy vegetables. Whole grains, legumes, spinach,
cabbage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and tomatoes and all
other commonly used vegetables contain water-soluble B. It is thought that
the germ of whole grains, rather than the bran, furnishes water-soluble B.
Compressed yeast contains some of this vitamine, but none of the other
two.
FOODS CONTAINING WATER-SOLUBLE C include both animal and vegetable foods,
but fresh fruits and green vegetables contain the largest quantity. Orange
juice, lettuce, cabbage, and spinach are valuable sources of this
vitamine. Milk and meat contain only a very small quantity of water-
soluble C.
SAVING THE NUTRIMENT AND FLAVOR.--It was mentioned in _Suggestions for
Cooking Fresh Vegetables_ that a saving of ash in vegetables meant a
saving of both nutriment and flavor. If vegetables of delicate flavor are
to be made tasty, it is especially necessary to lose none of the ash
constituents. Note that in the methods of cooking the vegetables of
delicate flavor in this lesson that either the vegetables are cooked in
such a way that no moisture needs to be drained from them, or the
vegetable stock drained from them is used in making sauce for the
vegetable. By these methods both nutriment and flavor are retained.
SPINACH
1 pound or 1/2 peck spinach
1/2 tablespoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
2 tablespoonfuls butter
If the spinach is at all wilted, place it in cold water until it becomes
fresh and crisp. Cut off the roots, break the leaves apart, and drop them
in a pan of water. Wash well, and then lift them into a second pan of
water; wash again, and continue until no sand appears in the bottom of the
pan. Lift from the water, drain, and place in a granite utensil, and add
the seasoning. Steam until tender (usually about 30 minutes). Add the
butter, cut the leaves with a knife and fork. Turn into a hot dish and
serve at once.
Spinach is most pleasing if served with a few drops of vinegar or a
combination of oil and vinegar. If desired, the pepper may be omitted and
1 tablespoonful of sugar added. Spinach may also be garnished with slices
of hard-cooked eggs, using 2 eggs to 1/2 peck of spinach.
Spinach may be cooked directly over the flame, as follows: wash the
spinach as directed above. Then drain, and place in a saucepan or
casserole. Do not add water unless the spinach is old. Add the seasoning,
cover, and cook for 10 minutes, pressing down and turning over the spinach
several times during the cooking. Cut with a knife and fork in the
saucepan or casserole. Add the butter, and simmer for 5 minutes. Serve at
once.
SCALLOPED SPINACH WITH CHEESE
1 pound spinach
1 cupful thick White Sauce
1/2 cupful cheese, cut in pieces
2 to 3 hard-cooked eggs, sliced
2 cupfuls buttered bread crumbs
Wash the spinach and cook it by either of the methods given above. Season
it with 1/2 tablespoonful of salt.
Drain the moisture from the cooked spinach. Use this liquid combined with
milk for the liquid of the White Sauce. Season the sauce with 1/2
teaspoonful of salt and add the cheese to it. Stir the mixture until the
cheese is blended with the sauce.
Divide the spinach, sauce, and eggs into 2 portions and the bread crumbs
into 3 portions, as directed for Scalloped Corn. Place a layer of crumbs
in a baking-dish, add a layer of spinach, sauce, and eggs. Add another
layer of each material and finally the third layer of crumbs. Bake in a
moderate oven until the materials are heated and the crumbs browned. Serve
hot.
DRIED CELERY LEAVES [Footnote 58: The stems of celery from which the
leaves are cut, should be utilized. They may be used in a salad or cooked
and served with White Sauce as Creamed Celery. If the vegetable is cooked,
it should be steamed or cooked in a small quantity of boiling water. In
case the latter method is followed, the celery stock should be combined
with milk and used in the preparation of the White Sauce.]
Wash celery leaves and remove the stems. Place the leaves on a platter or
granite pan, cover with cheese-cloth, and set aside to dry. When perfectly
dry, crumble the leaves and place them in a covered jar. Use for flavoring
soups and stews.
QUESTIONS
In what kind of soil does spinach grow?
What is the advantage of using two pans in washing spinach?
What is the advantage of cooking in steam green vegetables of delicate
flavor?
If green vegetables are cooked in water, what is the advantage in using a
small, rather than a large quantity of water?
What is the price of spinach per pound or peck? How many persons does one
pound or peck serve?
What is the price of celery per bunch?
What vitamines are present in spinach and celery leaves and stems?
LESSON LXXX
VITAMINES--VEGETABLES OF STRONG FLAVOR
THE EFFECT OF COOKING AND DRYING VITAMINE-RICH FOODS.--Since vitamines are
so essential in food, the effect of cooking and drying upon the vitamine
content of a food needs to be considered. There has been some difference
of opinion regarding this matter. Indeed, the question of whether or not
vitamines of all vitamine-rich foods are destroyed by cooking and drying
has not been determined. It is thought, however, that fat-soluble A may be
destroyed in part by cooking at boiling temperature and that prolonged
cooking may almost entirely destroy it.
Water-soluble B is thought to be little affected by ordinary home cooking
processes. But when foods containing it are heated above boiling
temperature, as in commercial canning and cooking in the pressure cooker,
the vitamine is believed to be partially or completely destroyed. It is
thought the water-soluble B vitamine present in foods is destroyed by
cooking them in water to which baking soda or any alkali is added.
Water-soluble C is decidedly affected by heat. Vegetables cooked for even
twenty minutes at boiling temperature lose much of their usefulness in
preventing scurvy. It is thought, however, that very young carrots cooked
for a short time, and canned tomatoes, contain water-soluble C. Drying
also destroys to a great extent the anti-scorbutic effect of foods
containing water-soluble C. Most dried vegetables and fruits have been
found valueless in checking scurvy.
Since there is no question about the vitamine content of uncooked
vegetables, the use of salads containing lettuce and raw vegetables such
as cabbage and carrots should find favor. Spinach is a valuable food not
only because it
contains vitamines, but because it is rich in iron. Young beet tops so
often discarded contain too much valuable material to be wasted.
NUTRIMENT _VERSUS_ FLAVOR.--If vegetables of strong flavor are cooked
carefully in a large quantity of boiling water (at least 4 quarts), a mild
flavor results, but much of the ash is lost. If vegetables are steamed
there is little loss of ash but the strong flavor is retained. In the
cooking of cabbage, for example, investigation has shown that almost four
times as much ash may be lost by boiling as by steaming.
In the cooking of such vegetables as cabbage and onions the question
arises: Is it better to steam them and thus lose little nutriment but
preserve the strong flavor; or to boil them in much water and thus lose
much nutriment but secure delicate flavor? If strong cabbage flavor is not
distasteful, steam it or cook it in a small quantity of water by all
means. If delicate cabbage flavor is much more pleasing, cook it in much
water. Onions have such a strong flavor that most housekeepers prefer to
sacrifice nutriment for flavor.
CREAMED CABBAGE (Cooked in Much Water)
A head of cabbage should be cut into quarters and placed in cold water. If
it is wilted, it should remain in the water until freshened. Cook the
cabbage uncovered from 15 to 25 minutes in a large quantity of boiling
water (1 teaspoonful of salt to I quart of water). The time depends upon
the age of the cabbage. Drain well. With the knife and fork cut the
cabbage in the saucepan. (Do not discard the core of young cabbage since
it contains valuable nutrients.) Mix with White Sauce, using two parts of
cabbage to one of White Sauce. Heat and serve (see _Creamed and
Scalloped Vegetables_).
_Scalloped Cabbage_ may be prepared by placing creamed cabbage in a
baking-dish, covering with Buttered Crumbs and baking until the crumbs are
brown.
Instead of using White Sauce with the cabbage, butter (or substitute),
pepper, and more salt (if required) may be added. Use 1 tablespoonful of
butter (or substitute) to each pint of cabbage.
CABBAGE (COOKED IN LITTLE WATER)
Clean cabbage, then cut or chop both the leaves and core. Cook in a
_small quantity_ of boiling water from 15 to 25 minutes. The small
quantity of stock which remains after cooking should be served with the
vegetable to which butter (or substitute) and seasonings are added.
The stock may also be drained from the cabbage and used in making White
Sauce in which the vegetable is served.
CREAMED CABBAGE (STEAMED)
Cut and clean cabbage as directed above. Place in a granite utensil and
steam until tender (usually about 45 minutes). Cut the leaves and add
White Sauce as directed above.
ONIONS (COOKED IN MUCH WATER)
1 pound onions
1/2 cupful milk
1 to 2 tablespoonfuls butter
1/2 teaspoonful salt
Pepper
Peel and wash the onions; then cook uncovered in a large quantity of
boiling salted water; change the water at the end of 5 minutes and again
in 10 minutes; cook until tender. Drain; add milk and seasonings and cook
until the milk is hot.
NOTE.--It is advisable to save the water drained from onions, boil it
down, and use it in soups, stews, or hash for flavor.
Onions may also be served with White Sauce, or they may be scalloped,
_i.e._ cut into quarters, placed in a baking-dish, covered
with White Sauce and Buttered Crumbs, and then browned in the oven.
The stain and odor may be kept from the hands if onions are held under
water when peeled.
If onions are cooked uncovered in a _large quantity of gently boiling
water in a well-ventilated kitchen_, not much odor is noticed. The
fireless cooker, however, provides satisfactory means of cooking onions
without the disagreeable odor (see Lesson XXII). Place the onions in a
large quantity of water and boil for 5 minutes. Then cook in the fireless
cooker from 2 to 8 hours, according to the size and the age of the onions,
and the type of cooker.
QUESTIONS
Compare the three methods of cooking cabbage given in this lesson. State
the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Why should the core or thick stem of cabbage be used as food?
What is the price per pound of cabbage? What is the weight of one cabbage
of average size? Give suggestions for selecting a cabbage.
Why should onions be peeled under water?
What is the purpose of changing the water twice in cooking onions?
Why is it advisable to save the water drained from onions and use it in
soups and other foods?
What is the price per pound of onions? How many persons will one pound of
onions serve?
LESSON LXXXI
SALADS (A)
PREPARATION OF A SALAD.--A well-prepared salad is a good food. It is
necessary, however, to prepare it so that it may be pleasing in appearance
as well as in taste. The green vegetables used for salads should be crisp,
cold, and dry when served. If several food materials are used, the flavors
should blend. Have the salad dressing well seasoned, and its ingredients
well proportioned. Add the dressing to a salad just before serving.
LETTUCE FOR SALAD
Either leaf or head lettuce forms a part of almost all salads. It is often
used as a bed for a salad, or as a border. For the latter purpose, leaf
lettuce should be used and cut into strips with the scissors. Keep lettuce
in a cold place; separate the leaves, and place them in cold water until
crisp and fresh. Wash and look over carefully to see that no insects cling
to them. Shake the water from the leaves or place them in a cloth bag or a
wire basket. Then place the bag or basket in the refrigerator to drain.
The leaves may also be dried with a towel.
Lettuce served with French Dressing makes a plain but pleasing salad. When
lettuce is used as a bed or border for a salad, it should be eaten and not
left to be turned into the garbage can.
FRENCH DRESSING
Clove of garlic _or_
Slice of onion
1 teaspoonful salt
6 tablespoonfuls salad oil
half teaspoonful paprika
2 tablespoonfuls vinegar or lemon juice
Rub a bowl with the clove of garlic or slice of onion. Add the remainder
of the ingredients, and stir until well blended. More vinegar or lemon
juice may be used, if desired. Chopped parsley or mint may be added.
Some find it convenient to put the materials for French Dressing in a
bottle or jar and mix the ingredients by shaking the bottle.
For Fruit Salads, the addition of 1 tablespoonful of sugar and 1
teaspoonful of lemon juice to the French Dressing recipe above makes a
pleasing flavor. Celery salt is thought by some to improve the flavor.
From a quarter to a half teaspoonful may be added.
COLESLAW
3 cupfuls shredded cabbage
1/2 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful mustard
Cayenne
1 teaspoonful sugar
1 egg or 2 egg yolks
1/2 cupful milk
2 teaspoonfuls butter or substitute
1/4 cupful vinegar
Heat the milk in a double boiler. Beat the eggs, add the dry ingredients.
Then add the milk to them. Return the mixture to the double boiler and
cook as a custard (see _Soft Custard_). Remove from the hot water,
add the fat and vinegar, and _at once_ strain over the cabbage. Set
aside to cool. Serve cold.
CARROT AND CABBAGE SALAD
1 medium-sized carrot
2 cupfuls cabbage
1/2 cupful roasted peanuts
French or Cream Salad Dressing
Clean and scrape the carrot. Wash the cabbage. Put the carrot (uncooked),
cabbage, and peanuts through the food chopper. Mix with French or Cream
Salad Dressing. Add more seasoning if necessary. Serve at once.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to dry the salad materials before adding the
salad dressing.
Give at least three different vegetable mixtures that would be palatable
and pleasing if served with French Dressing.
How is cabbage cleaned? How should it be cut for salad?
When is the dressing usually added to salads? When is the dressing added
to the Coleslaw? Give the reason for this exception.
What is the purpose of the egg in this salad dressing? What could be
substituted for the egg? Give the method of preparation if this
substitution were made.
What is the price per pound of leaf lettuce? Of head lettuce per pound or
per head? What is the average number of leaves in a pound?
What materials in Carrot and Cabbage Salad contain vitamines? State the
kind of vitamine present in each material.
LESSON LXXXII
SALADS (B)
STUFFED EGGS
Cut hard-cooked eggs into halves crosswise. Remove the yolks, mash them,
and for each egg add the following ingredients:
1 tablespoonful chopped chicken, ham, or other meat
Dash salt
1 teaspoonful vegetable oil or melted butter
6 drops vinegar
1/8 teaspoonful mustard
Cayenne
Mix the ingredients. Refill the whites with the yolk mixture. Serve the
stuffed eggs on lettuce leaves.
The chopped chicken or meat may be omitted from the egg mixture, or a
little chopped pickle or olive or cheese may be used instead of the meat.
Salad dressing may be served with Stuffed Eggs.
CREAM SALAD DRESSING
3 tablespoonfuls butter _or_ substitute
4 tablespoonfuls flour
2 tablespoonfuls sugar
Pepper
1 to 2 eggs
l 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt
1/2 teaspoonful mustard
1 1/2 cupfuls milk (sweet _or_ sour)
1/2 cupful vinegar
Make a sauce of the fat, flour, and milk. Beat the eggs, add the
seasonings. Add the first mixture gradually to the egg mixture and cook
over hot water as a custard (see _Soft Custard_). Add the vinegar,
strain. Cool before serving.
Less mustard may be used, if desired.
BANANA SALAD
Peel and scrape bananas. Place them on lettuce leaves or surround with a
border of shredded lettuce. Cover with Cream Salad or Mayonnaise Dressing
and sprinkle chopped peanuts or California walnuts over them. Serve at
once.
Banana Salad may be varied by serving it with Cream Salad Dressing to
which peanut butter is added,--(1/2 cupful salad dressing and 1/4 cupful
peanut butter). Do not use the chopped peanuts with this combination. A
mixture of sliced apples and bananas served with the peanut butter
dressing makes a pleasing salad.
QUESTIONS
Name the food materials contained in the above recipes which contain
vitamines. What kind of vitamines does each contain?
Give two methods of hard-cooking eggs (see _Hard-cooked Eggs_).
In Stuffed Eggs what meats could be substituted for chopped chicken or
ham?
What material could be substituted for one of the eggs in Cream Salad
Dressing?
If yolks of eggs are used in Cream Salad Dressing, how many should be
substituted for two whole eggs?
Why should bananas be scraped?
Why should they be served at once after preparing?
LESSON LXXXIII
CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOODSTUFFS
Substances that nourish the body may be classified as follows:
/ (_a_) Starch
/ Carbohydrates \ (_b_) Sugar
Energy Givers | Fats
\ Protein
[Footnote 59: Carbohydrates also include cellulose. But because cellulose
does not yield any appreciable amount of energy, it is not listed with
starch and sugar.]
/ Complete Proteins
/ Protein
Body Builders \ Incomplete Proteins
\ Ash
/ Ash
Body Regulators | Water / (_a_) Fat-soluble A
\ Vitamines | (_b_) Water-soluble B
\ (_c_) Water-soluble C
[Footnote 60: "So little is known regarding the chemical composition of
vitamines that it is difficult to classify them. Since the three food
essentials termed as fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, and water-soluble C
are individual substances and very different in character, it may be that
they will be classified later as three separate foodstuffs. It could then
be said that there are eight foodstuffs."]
Make lists of foods rich in:
(1) Water. (2) Ash. (3) Carbohydrates. Subdivide foods rich in
carbohydrates, into foods rich in (_a_) sugar, (_b_) starch,
(_c_) cellulose (_i.e._ bulky foods). (4) Fats. (5) Protein.
Indicate those foods that contain _complete_ proteins and those that
contain _incomplete_ proteins. (6) Vitamines. Subdivide foods rich in
vitamines into foods rich in fat-soluble A, water-soluble B, water-soluble
C.
Explain why certain foods are contained in two or more lists.
RELATED WORK
LESSON LXXXIV
SELECTING FOOD
MARKETING _VERSUS_ TELEPHONING.--Visits to food markets or grocery
stores are most essential, especially if one is learning to buy. It is
first necessary to find desirable market places or stores,--those that are
clean and reliable. Screened windows and doors, and adequate bins, boxes,
jars, or other receptacles for storing foods are necessary in keeping
foods clean. After one has found desirable places for marketing, it is
well to become acquainted with desirable brands of staple canned or
package goods. After this knowledge is gained such foods may be ordered by
telephone, or by messenger with satisfaction.
But no matter how experienced the buyer, it is more satisfactory to select
at markets perishable goods such as meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables
that wilt readily. In certain cases where the housekeeper has such
obligations or so many duties that a personal visit to markets is
impossible, food must be purchased by telephone or messenger. Such a
procedure, however, is usually followed at the sacrifice of economy and
satisfaction in buying.
FRESH _VERSUS_ CANNED FOODS.--Fresh foods of good quality are
generally more desirable both from the standpoint of flavor and nutriment
than canned goods. When, however, fresh foods are unseasonable, their
price may greatly exceed that of canned foods. A good rule to follow is to
buy fresh foods when they are in season and the canned ones when fresh
foods of reasonable price cannot be secured. The practice of buying
perishable foods, especially fruits, when they are abundant and canning
them for later use is thrifty.
To buy factory-canned fruits and vegetables when fresh winter fruits, such
as cranberries, oranges, and apples, and root vegetables may be purchased
is questionable both from the standpoint of economy and nutriment. It is
often more economical to purchase dried rather than canned fruits. The
former usually contain more food value per pound.
BULK _VERSUS_ PACKAGE GOODS.--Time spent in placing and sealing foods
in packages and the cost of the containers make the price of package foods
exceed those sold in bulk. Moreover, large packages usually cost more
proportionately than small ones. On the other hand, package foods may be
cleaner, require less handling, and are often much more inviting because
of their attractive wrapping. It does not follow, however, that all foods
sold in containers are cleaner than those sold in bulk. Unsanitary
conditions sometimes prevail at factories where the foods are packed. It
is a safe rule to buy in package form only those foods which cannot be
washed or sterilized by cooking.
UNCOOKED _VERSUS_ COOKED FOODS.--Not only breads, cakes, certain
cereals, and canned goods may be purchased ready cooked, but other foods,
such as salads and puddings, may be bought in certain markets and stores.
Such foods are much higher in price than those of equal quality prepared
at home. The cost of labor, fuel, and "overhead expense" as well as of
materials must be paid for by the purchaser. Unless one is engaged in
business other than housekeeping or one's housekeeping duties are too
arduous it is generally not wise to make a practice of buying cooked
foods.
LARGE _VERSUS_ SMALL QUANTITIES.--It is usually wasteful to purchase
perishable foods in large quantities. Fresh meats, perishable fruits such
as berries, and green vegetables should be purchased only in quantities
sufficient for immediate use. It is sometimes economical, as far as fuel
and time are concerned, to buy enough fresh meat for two days'
consumption, provided all of it can be cooked on the first day, and then
used cold or merely reheated on the second day.
Unless storage space is limited, flour should not be purchased in less
than 25 pound sacks. In less quantity than this it usually costs more per
pound. It is wise for small families, however, to purchase flour and other
grains in smaller quantities in the summer time since weevils may infest
such food materials.
When a non-perishable food such as sugar, or any of the grains, sells for
a fractional sum per pound, it is economical to buy several pounds so as
not to add to the cost per pound. It is wiser, for example, to buy 2
pounds of dried beans at 12 1/2 cents per pound than one pound at 13
cents.
Semi-perishable foods such as eggs and fats can usually be purchased with
satisfaction in quantities sufficient for a week. They should, of course,
be stored in a cool place. Many persons find it economical to buy eggs in
large quantities in the summer time and pack them in water glass for
winter use.
Root vegetables and canned goods are cheaper when bought by the bushel and
case. There must, however, be cool, dry storage space to make the purchase
of the former in large quantities practical.
It is impossible to purchase certain foods for small families in small
enough quantities for immediate consumption. A can of molasses, for
example, is usually more than enough for use at one time. When this is the
case, the greatest care should be exercised to store such foods carefully
and to utilize them before they spoil.
Cooperative buying usually means a saving. Such foods as flour, potatoes,
dried vegetables, sugar, apples, and dried fruits may be purchased by the
barrel, box, or other measure. If several families jointly purchase such
quantities of foods, the expense is reduced. It is also of advantage to
buy from the producer. The middle man's profit is thus eliminated.
LESSON LXXXV
COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested:
Cream of Pea Soup--Croutons
Macaroni and Cheese
Lettuce Salad
Bread and Butter
Oatmeal Cookies Tea
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or
supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person.
LESSON LXXXVI
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Chopped Steak
Boiled or Steamed Potato
Coleslaw
Tea
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON LXXXVII
HOME PROJECTS I [Footnote 61: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare salads or other foods containing leafy
vegetables at least twice a week.
Calculate the quantity of milk used by each member of your household.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To prepare salads which are both pleasing in appearance and tasty.
(Make sure that they are properly seasoned.)
(2) To vary either the materials used in salad-making or the method of
serving and preparing the same salad materials.
(3) If the vegetable is cooked, to prepare it in such a way that no
nutriment is lost.
(4) To compare the quantity of milk used by each member of the family with
the quantities suggested at the top of.
DIVISION EIGHT
FLAVORING MATERIALS: FOOD ADJUNCTS
LESSON LXXXVIII
FOOD ADJUNCTS--DISHES CONTAINING FOOD ADJUNCTS
FOOD ADJUNCTS.--Besides the foodstuffs there are edible substances called
_food adjuncts_. These cannot be termed foods, as they do not perform
the functions of such, but they give flavor to them and they may excite
the secretion of the digestive juices, and thus aid in the digestion of
real foods. For the most part, food adjuncts are contained in these
classes of materials,--condiments, flavoring extracts, and beverages.
Condiments.--Seasoning materials and spices are called _condiments_.
They are used with foods to give the latter a pleasing flavor. But
condiments should be eaten in moderation. They are often used to cover up
the flavor of inferior or poorly prepared foods and they are often used to
excess in sauces. Highly seasoned sauces should be served only with foods
that are insipid in taste, but valuable for their nutritive properties.
Good foods, well cooked, have a flavor which needs little change. We
should train ourselves to enjoy the natural flavor of foods, so that there
is no craving for condiments.
_Salt_ may be classed both as a condiment and as a food (see
_Ash_). When used in moderation, it has undoubted value in diet. It
is used in many types of foods, especially meats and vegetables. The
flavor of sweet foods such as cakes and sweet sauces is invariably
improved by the addition of a small quantity of salt.
_Vinegar_ is an acid flavoring material prepared by fermenting apple
or grape juice or other materials. It contains acetic acid.
_Cinnamon_ is a spice obtained from the inner bark of a small tree.
Like most spices, it contains a volatile oil, i.e. an oil which
evaporates. Cinnamon is sometimes adulterated with _cassia_, a spice
prepared from the bark of the cassia tree which grows in China and Dutch
West Indies. Cassia is similar to cinnamon in flavor.
_Cloves_ are the flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows in
Brazil, Ceylon, and West Indies.
_Nutmeg_ is the dried kernel of a fruit which grows on a tree native
to the Malay Archipelago.
_Ginger_ is the root of a tropical plant. It contains starch and oil
of ginger.
_Mustard_ is prepared from the seed of mustard plants.
_Black pepper_ is obtained from the unripe berry of a tropical vine
while _white pepper_ is prepared from the ripe berries. The latter is
not as pleasing in flavor as black pepper and is more expensive. It is
sometimes desired, however, because of its more pleasing appearance.
_Cayenne pepper_ is prepared from the dried ripe fruit of the
Capsicum plant.
_Paprika_ is also prepared from the fruit of the Capsicum plant, but
the seeds and stems of the fruit are removed. It is a much milder spice
than cayenne pepper.
_Marjoram, savory_, and _thyme_ are the leaves of herbs used for
flavoring.
FLAVORING EXTRACTS.--Alcoholic solutions of volatile oils derived from
plants are termed flavoring extracts. By dissolving the vanilla bean and
lemon and orange peel in alcohol vanilla, lemon, and orange extracts are
prepared. Since volatile oils evaporate readily, especially when heated,
flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold foods.
BEVERAGES.--The stimulating materials contained in the common beverages,--
tea, coffee, cocoa, and chocolate,--are food adjuncts. [Footnote 62:
_Caffeine_ is the stimulating material in coffee; _theine_, in
tea; and _theobromine_, in cocoa and chocolate.] Except for the value
of the water they contain, in carrying on the needs of the body, and for
the small quantity of sugar and cream used with them, tea and coffee have
no food value. But cocoa and chocolate are rather rich in food value (see
_Cocoa and Chocolate_). These beverages contain both foodstuffs and
food adjuncts.
CURRY OF KIDNEY BEANS
1 pint kidney beans
2 tablespoonfuls fat
1 onion
1 teaspoonful curry powder [Footnote 63: Curry powder is a mixture of
various
spices including turmeric and coriander-seed powders.]
1 teaspoonful salt
2 tablespoonfuls flour
1 pint tomatoes
Wash and soak the beans overnight. Boil gently until tender.
Brown the onion in the fat, then add the curry powder, salt, and flour,
and proceed as for Tomato Sauce (see _Tomato Sauce_). Add the cooked
beans to the mixture and cook all together for a few minutes. Serve hot.
_Chili con carni_ may be prepared by adding 1 pound chopped beef to
the ingredients above and substituting chili powder for curry powder. If
this change is made, brown the onion in the fat, then add the meat. Stir
and cook until the meat loses its red color. Add the cooked beans and
seasonings. Mix the flour with a small quantity of cold tomato. Add this
and the remainder of the tomatoes to the meat mixture. Stir and cook for a
few minutes. Serve hot.
SPICED BAKED APPLES
5 apples
5 tablespoonfuls sugar
Water
1 lemon
Whole cloves
Wash and core the apples. They may be pared if desired. Stick 2 or 3 whole
cloves in each apple. Place the apples in a baking-dish, put 1
tablespoonful of sugar in the cavity of each apple, and a slice of lemon
on the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the baking-dish.
Cover, bake at 400 degrees F. until soft. Serve cold.
If the apples are very sour, more sugar should be used.
SAVORY TOAST
2 cupfuls canned tomatoes
1 cupful water
2 cloves
3 allspice berries
3 peppercorns
2 sprays parsley
2 tablespoonfuls fat
1/2 onion, sliced
3 tablespoonfuls flour
1/2 teaspoonful mustard
2 teaspoonfuls salt
Dash cayenne
1/4 pound cheese
1 egg
8 slices toast
In a covered saucepan, cook the tomatoes, water, cloves, allspice berries,
peppercorns, and parsley at simmering temperature for at least 15 minutes.
Brown the onion in the fat. Mix the flour, mustard, salt, and cayenne. Add
these ingredients to the onion and fat. Mix well and add the cooked
tomatoes. Stir and cook until the mixture reaches the boiling point, then
strain. Add the cheese, stir and cook until the cheese is blended with the
other ingredients.
Beat the egg, add a portion of the hot tomato mixture to it. Mix
thoroughly and add it to the remainder of the tomato mixture. Stir and
cook on the back of the range or over hot water until the egg is
thickened. Pour over toast. Serve at once.
Canned tomato soup may be used instead of canned tomatoes. If this
substitution is made, the cloves, allspice berries, peppercorns, and
parsley should be omitted. For economy, the egg may be omitted. If no egg
is used, the flour may be increased to 4 tablespoonfuls and the fat to 3
tablespoonfuls.
Compare this recipe with that for Tomato Sauce. In what ways are the
ingredients and method of preparation similar? In what ways do they
differ?
QUESTIONS
In which ingredients of the Curry of Kidney Beans and Spiced Baked Apples
are the food adjuncts found?
Beans contain what ingredients that require long cooking?
What material can be added during cooking that will soften them (see
_Cooking Dried Legumes_)?
What is the purpose of covering apples during baking? Why should they be
baked in a slow oven (see _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_)?
What kind of substance do all spices contain?
Why should spices be used in moderation?
Explain why flavoring extracts should be added, if possible, to cold
foods.
Mention at least two forms in which the following spices may be purchased:
Cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger, mustard, and black pepper.
What materials in the recipe for Savory Toast are used merely for
flavoring?
What materials are removed by straining? How is the flavor extracted from
these materials before straining?
RELATED WORK
LESSON LXXXIX
SPENDING FOR FOOD
WHAT TO BUY.--Dr. Langworthy of the United States Department of
Agriculture has listed foods into five groups and has advised that food
from each group be used daily. The five groups follow:
" 1. Fruits and Vegetables.
2. Milk, Cheese, Eggs, Fish, Meat, Beans, Peas, Peanuts.
3. Cereals--Corn-meal, Oatmeal, Rice, Rye, Wheat, Flour, Bread.
4. Sugar, Sirups, Jelly, Honey, Candies.
5. Fats--Butter, Margarine, Cottonseed Oil, Olive Oil, Drippings, Suet,
Bacon,
Chocolate."
From studying the previous contents of this textbook the pupil will
doubtless recognize in these groups foods to supply all the needs of the
body. By following this plan of using some food from each group every day,
the needs of the body will be supplied.
HOW MUCH TO SPEND FOR FOOD.--Any one no matter how ignorant or thoughtless
can get rid of money. But it takes a wise person, one who understands
values and quality, to get value received for money spent. Whether one is
purchasing food for all the meals of a family or is only selecting a
luncheon or one meal, it is desirable to spend money wisely.
The five food groups may serve as a basis for the purchase of foods. It
has been suggested that each dollar used in buying foods be divided into 5
parts of 20 cents each.
"Out of every dollar spent use: [Footnote 64: From _United States
Thrift
Leaflet #15_.]
20 cents, _more or less_, for vegetables and fruits
20 cents, or _more_, for milk and cheese
20 cents, or _less_, for meat, fish, eggs, etc.
20 cents, or _more_, for bread and cereals
20 cents, or _less_, for sugar, fat, tea, coffee, chocolate,
flavoring"
NOTE.--Compare these groups of food with those given above. Note that the
first division of money should be used for the foods of Group 1; the
second and third divisions for the foods of Group 2; the fourth division
for the foods of Group 3; and the fifth division for the foods of Groups 4
and 5.
[Illustration: FIGURE 61.--A SUGGESTION FOR THE DIVISION OF EACH DOLLAR
SPENT FOR FOOD.]
According to Lucy H. Gillett of the Dietetic Bureau of Boston, when
strictest economy is necessary, _one fourth_ of each dollar spent for
food should be used to purchase bread and other grain products. The
remainder of the dollar should be spent about equally for the groups of
food mentioned above. If 25 instead of 20 cents is spent for cereal
products, however, care should be taken to buy sufficient milk to meet the
needs of each member of the family (see _Milk, an Invaluable Food_).
This is especially necessary where there are young children in the family.
COMPARING THE COST OF FOODS.--The pupil should note that the different
foods contained in the same groups differ in cost. One can economize by
using the cheaper foods in the group or by using the more expensive only
occasionally. If you find that fresh vegetables cost less than fruits, use
the latter more sparingly than the former. Meats are more expensive than
dried peas or beans and cheese, especially Cottage Cheese. Cottage Cheese
or peas and beans in combination with milk or eggs may take the place of
meat. A small quantity of meat may be combined with the dried legumes or
cereals and a saving effected.
The third, fourth, and fifth groups contain energy-giving foods (see
Divisions IV and V). Of the three groups of foods, cereals are by far the
cheapest source of energy. A generous use of cereals is economical. In
buying grains one gets much nutriment at little cost (when compared with
other foods). If the food bills must be curtailed, use cereals generously
and meat sparingly. Do not eat cereals, however, to the exclusion of the
foods of the other groups. It is especially necessary to use milk and
leafy vegetables with cereals. The latter are lacking in the fat-soluble A
vitamine.
The fats included in Group 5 differ in cost. It is necessary to select
these wisely in order to economize. A wise and economical use of fats is
discussed previously.
PLANNING BEFORE BUYING.--It is not only an obligation but a necessity to
waste no food. The bit of cereal left from breakfast, the crust of bread,
and the scrap of meat represent money. They must be utilized.
The thrifty housekeeper sees to it that left-over food is properly cared
for so that it need not be wasted because of spoilage. She covers food and
stores it in a cool place. She uses it before it begins to spoil.
In order to buy wisely it is necessary to take account of the foods
already in the house or in the garden. It is necessary to decide before
going to market just what is needed to supplement the materials already on
hand.
LESSON XC
COOKING AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER
Cook and serve a luncheon or supper. The following menu is suggested:
Salmon Timbale with White Sauce
Stuffed Baked Potatoes
Stewed or Scalloped Tomatoes
Bread and Butter
Prune Pudding with Top Milk
Analyze this menu. Is food from each of the groups given in lesson LXXXIX
contained in it?
Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the luncheon or
supper without a maid. Calculate the cost of the meal per person.
LESSON XCI
REVIEW: MEAL COOKING
MENU
Cream of Tomato Soup
Cheese Pudding
Spiced Baked Apples
See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON XCII
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 65: See Lesson IX]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If possible secure lists of foods purchased
for use at your home during a week or a month. List each article and price
in one of the five groups, viz.,
=====================================================================
| Vegetables | Milk and | Meat, Fish, | Bread and | Sugar, Fat and |
| and Fruits | Cheese | Eggs, Etc | Cereals | Other Groceries |
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Add up the cost in each column. Compare the sums.
SUGGESTED AIMS:
(1) To determine if the money for the various groups of food has been
spent according to the plan suggested in lesson LXXXIX.
(2) If not, to use the food lists actually purchased as a foundation and
change them so as to embody the division of the dollar suggested in lesson
LXXXIX.
DIVISION NINE
FOOD COMBINATIONS
LESSON XCIII
VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (A)
FOOD COMBINATIONS.--From a dietetic standpoint, it is well to combine
foods of different compositions. If a food is lacking in one or more of
the foodstuffs, it should be combined with a food that supplies the
missing nutrient. Bread contains little fat, and butter contains no
carbohydrates; hence these two foods make a desirable combination.
Vegetable oils, butter, and other fats make desirable additions to
vegetables. Macaroni contains little fat, while cheese is rich in this
foodstuff. Moreover, macaroni contains a small quantity of incomplete
protein, while cheese is rich in complete protein. Hence macaroni and
cheese make a good combination. In selecting foods to be used together,
careful attention should be given to their composition.
EMULSION OF OIL; SALAD DRESSING.--As has been stated (see _Breaking Up
of Fats_), to emulsify fat it is necessary to separate it into tiny
globules, and to coat each globule with some materials, so that the
droplets will remain separate. Various materials serve to emulsify fats.
During digestion, fat is emulsified by means of a _soap_ (see
Experiment 36). Egg is another material which emulsifies fats. This fact
is made use of in making Mayonnaise Dressing from vegetable oil and eggs.
If one understands that the oil must be divided into globules, and that
each globule must be coated with egg, the preparation of salad dressing
becomes interesting and successful. It is evident that the fat should be
added to the egg slowly and should be beaten while being added. If the oil
and other ingredients are cold, a thicker dressing results. Quick
mayonnaise, however, is an exception to this rule.
[Illustration: FIGURE 62--THE COMPOSITION OF ROOTS AND SUCCULENT
VEGETABLES (Revised edition)]
Since emulsion of fat is one of the processes of digestion, it would seem
that fat in emulsified form would be most readily digested. This is true
of some emulsified fats,--the fat of milk is one of the most readily
digested. But when an emulsified fat is mixed with protein as in
Mayonnaise Dressing, the digestion of the mixture is slower than if either
of the foodstuffs were alone. Hence to some persons, Mayonnaise Dressing
proves distressing.
MAYONNAISE DRESSING
1 egg yolk
1 tablespoonful vinegar
1 tablespoonful lemon juice
1/4 teaspoonful mustard
3/4 teaspoonful salt
1/2 teaspoonful sugar
Cayenne
1 cupful vegetable oil
2 tablespoonfuls boiling water
Put the egg yolk into a mixing bowl, add hot vinegar, and mix thoroughly.
Then add the lemon juice and dry ingredients. Let the mixture stand until
cool. Then beat it with a Dover egg beater and while beating add the oil
in small quantities,--about 1/2 tablespoonful at a time. Continue beating
and adding the oil. When the mixture begins to thicken, the oil can be
added in greater quantities. After all the oil is added, add the boiling
water. Beat until the latter is thoroughly blended.
It has been found that the oil may be added more rapidly if the egg is
acidified before mixing it with the oil. [Footnote 66: This is due to the
fact that the acid reacts with the albumin of the egg to form a kind of
salt which hydrates and takes up water from the mixture. The more water
that can be taken out of an emulsion in the form of hydrates, the more
easily will an emulsion be formed.] The addition of boiling water to the
mixture after the egg and oil have been blended, prevents the oil from
separating from the other ingredients.
[Illustration: FIGURE 63--THE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER AND OTHER FAT-YIELDING
FOODS (Revised edition)]
If desired, the _whole egg_ may be used in place of the egg yolks. In
case this substitution is made, all the ingredients other than the egg
should be doubled in quantity, since 1 whole egg will emulsify 2 cupfuls
of oil.
The flavor of refined corn, cottonseed, or peanut oil is mild and
pleasing. These oils have less flavor than olive oil but are as
nutritious. Their use lessens the cost of Mayonnaise Dressing. After
opening a bottle of vegetable oil, it should be kept in a cold place. If
it is rancid, it should not be used in salad dressing.
If Mayonnaise Dressing is made successfully, it is thick and smooth. If
the dressing is thin and curdled, the oil has been added too quickly, i.e.
it has not been emulsified.
_To remedy Mayonnaise that has curdled_, beat the yolk of an egg
slightly, then add the dressing to it gradually, beating constantly.
_Mayonnaise Dressing may be varied_ by the addition of chili or
celery sauce, chopped hard-cooked eggs, chopped parsley, pimentos, and
green peppers.
QUICK MAYONNAISE DRESSING [Footnote 67: Adding the entire quantity of oil
at one time and mixing it with hot paste may seem an unusual procedure for
making an oil dressing. The fact that the method is successful may be
explained as follows: Mixing the acid with the egg forms a salt which
hydrates the mixture, and thus aids in making favorable conditions for
emulsifying the oil as explained in the footnote of a previous page. The
starch paste also takes up water from the mixture. This makes it possible
to emulsify the oil easily, and also to make a stable emulsion.]
2 egg yolks _or_
1 whole egg
2 tablespoonfuls vinegar
2 tablespoonfuls lemon juice
1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt
1 teaspoonful sugar
1/2 teaspoonful mustard
Cayenne
1 cupful vegetable oil
Into a mixing bowl put the eggs and vinegar. Mix well. Add the other
ingredients. (It is not necessary to stir them.)
Prepare a thick paste as follows:
In the top part of a double boiler put
1/3 cupful flour
1 cupful cold water
1 tablespoonful butter
Mix thoroughly. Then stir and cook over boiling water at least 10 minutes.
At once (while it is hot) turn this paste into the egg and oil mixture.
Beat all the ingredients with a Dover egg beater until a thick, uniform
dressing results.
(Adapted from a recipe by Mrs. Hill.)
SEASONABLE VEGETABLE SALADS
Use seasonable vegetables in salads. Cucumbers, tomatoes, celery, and
cooked cauliflower may be used in the fall. Cooked beets, cabbage,
carrots, and olives may be used in the winter, and head lettuce, radishes,
and cooked asparagus in the spring. Vegetables should be chilled, cut into
desirable shapes, and served on lettuce with salad dressing. Beets are
greatly improved by cutting into pieces, after cooking, and soaking for
one hour in vinegar to which salt has been added. They may also be soaked
in French Dressing.
A combination of vegetables and fruits makes a pleasing salad. Cucumbers
and pineapple, celery and apples, olives and cooked cranberries are
successful salad mixtures. The use of cheese, nuts, and peanuts with
vegetables and fruits adds to the flavor and food value of salads.
Uncooked carrots, cabbage, and peanuts dressed with French Dressing make a
tasty salad.
Canned vegetables, "left over" cold vegetables, meat, and fish have a
better flavor in salads if they are mixed with French Dressing and allowed
to stand in a cold place for one hour before serving. This process is
called _marinating_. If several meats or vegetables are used in the
same salad, they should be marinated separately. Just before serving,
Cream Salad Dressing or Mayonnaise Dressing may be added to marinated
salad materials.
A salad consisting of lettuce or other uncooked leafy vegetables should
not be dressed until it is ready to be served. The acid in salad dressing
wilts the leaves.
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to add the oil to the egg mixture in small
quantities.
Explain why it is that a curdled dressing can be remedied by adding it
gradually to an egg.
What is the price per quart of olive oil? Of peanut oil? Of cottonseed
oil? Of corn oil?
Find the difference in cost between a Mayonnaise Dressing made with corn,
cottonseed, or peanut oil and one made with olive oil.
From the standpoint of composition, explain why fresh vegetables and
Mayonnaise Dressing make a suitable combination (see Figures 62 and 63).
How much Mayonnaise Dressing is generally used for one serving? How many
will the above recipe serve?
Make a list of combinations of materials which make tasty salads.
LESSON XCIV
VEGETABLES WITH SALAD DRESSING (B)
SALAD GARNISHING.--Successful garnishing of a salad requires a sense of
good color combination, judgment in blending flavors, and ingenuity in
arranging materials. Usually it is well to use only edible materials for
garnishing. Certain flowers and greens may be used to advantage, however,
in garnishing the salad for an occasional dinner or luncheon. Celery with
"fringed ends," stuffed olives cut in slices, lettuce shredded or whole,
pimentos, parsley, hard-cooked eggs sliced or pressed through strainer,
and vegetables of pronounced color (as beets or carrots) cut into slices,
cubes, or fancy shapes,--all these make pleasing garnishes.
PERFECTION SALAD
2 tablespoonfuls granulated gelatine
1/2 cupful cold water
1/2 cupful vinegar
1 lemon,--juice
2 cupfuls boiling water
1/2 cupful sugar
1 teaspoonful salt
1 1/2 cupfuls sliced celery
1 1/2 cupfuls shredded cabbage
3 pimentos chopped
Prepare all ingredients, except the vegetables, as for a gelatine mixture
(see _Lemon Jelly_). When the mixture begins to set, stir in the
vegetables, and pour into a mold. Serve on lettuce leaves with Mayonnaise
Dressing.
Other vegetable mixtures such as cucumbers and tomatoes or peas and celery
molded in jelly make tasty salads.
QUESTIONS
Mention at least four different kinds of salads, with a suitable garnish
for each.
What should be the condition of all green vegetables used in salads?
How should lettuce be kept and prepared for salads?
From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the
percentage composition of tomatoes, cucumbers, spinach, cabbage, lettuce,
celery, and onions.
Which contains the most water? Which contains the most ash?
Aside from the fact that sugar improves the flavor of Perfection Salad,
why is it a valuable ingredient of the salad mixture (see Figure 94)?
Explain why Mayonnaise Dressing with wafers or rolls would make a valuable
food addition to Perfection Salad.
FOOD COMBINATIONS
LESSON XCV
FISH SALAD AND SALAD ROLLS
SALMON OR TUNNY SALAD
1 can salmon or tunny (or tuna) fish
1 cupful shredded cabbage or sliced celery
Drain the oil from the fish; remove the bone and bits of skin. Add the
cabbage or celery, and Mayonnaise or Cream Salad Dressing. Arrange on
lettuce and garnish as desired.
If Cream Dressing is used with salmon, the oil drained from the salmon may
be used for the fat of Cream Dressing.
The salmon may be marinated before adding the other ingredients. When this
is done, the salad dressing may be omitted. Salmon contains so much fat
that it is not well to add more oil after marinating.
SALAD ROLLS
2 cupfuls flour
3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder
1/2 teaspoonful salt
4 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil or melted butter or substitute
1/2 cupful milk
1 egg
Sift some flour, then measure 2 cupfuls of it. Add the baking powder and
salt to the flour. Beat the egg, add the milk and oil or melted fat to it.
Through a sifter add the dry ingredients to the milk mixture. Thoroughly
mix the ingredients by cutting them with a knife. Roll out on a floured
board, cut into oblong pieces, and with a floured knife make a deep crease
through the center of each roll. Brush the top with diluted egg (use 2
tablespoonfuls of water to 1 egg) and sprinkle granulated sugar over it.
Bake in a moderate oven.
QUESTIONS
Why is the top of the salad roll mixture brushed with egg? Why should the
egg be diluted for such purposes?
What reason is there for combining fish, salad dressing, and rolls?
How much fat and protein does canned salmon and tunny contain (see _U.
S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28)?
Compare this with the quantity of fat and protein in beef steak (see
Figure 68).
LESSON XCVI
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP AND CHEESE STRAWS
COMBINING MILK WITH ACID.--In the preparation of Cream of Tomato Soup, it
is necessary to combine milk with tomatoes,--a food containing acid. If
the following experiments are performed, and applications drawn from the
results of the experiments, it should be possible to make this soup
successfully.
EXPERIMENT 61: EFFECT OF ACID ON MILK.--Put a small quantity of milk in a
test tube, heat it slightly, and add a few drops of some acid substance,--
tomato juice, lemon juice, or vinegar. What is the result?
EXPERIMENT 62: NEUTRALIZATION OF ACID BY MEANS OF SODA.--Put a small
quantity of any of the acids mentioned above in a test tube and add 1/4
teaspoonful baking soda. What happens? Now add a little milk to the
mixture. Does the milk curdle? How has the acid been changed so that it
does not curdle the milk? What conclusions may be drawn from this as to
the use of soda in cooking tomato and milk mixtures?
CREAM OF TOMATO SOUP
1 can tomatoes
1/4 teaspoonful baking soda
1 quart milk
1/3 cupful flour
1/4 cupful butter or substitute
1 tablespoonful salt
1/8 teaspoonful pepper
Turn the tomatoes into a saucepan, cover them; cook at simmering
temperature for about fifteen minutes. Press through a strainer and add
the baking soda. Make a White Sauce of the milk, flour, and fat, _remove
from the fire_. Add the _hot_ tomatoes slowly to the White Sauce,
stirring constantly. Add the seasonings. _Do not heat the mixture after
combining the tomatoes and White Sauce. Serve at once._
[Illustration: FIGURE 64--THE COMPOSITION OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS]
Cream of Tomato Soup may also be prepared by making a sauce of the
tomatoes, flour, and fat, adding the baking soda and pouring the sauce
into the hot milk and finally adding the seasonings.
Note that in either method of preparation, the tomato is added to the milk
and the salt is added just before serving. Only enough baking soda is used
to affect a portion of the acid of the tomatoes so that the pleasing acid
flavor of the tomatoes still predominates.
CHEESE STRAWS
2/3 cupful flour
1/4 teaspoonful salt
Cayenne
1 cupful soft bread crumbs
1 cupful grated cheese
2 tablespoonfuls milk
Mix the ingredients in the order given in the recipe. (The milk should
merely moisten the ingredients so they will stick together. It may be
necessary to increase the quantity.) On a slightly floured board roll the
mixture to 1/4 inch thickness. Cut in strips 1/4 inch wide and 4 to 6
inches long. Place on an oiled pan. Bake until brown in a moderate oven.
QUESTIONS
Why should tomatoes be covered when cooked for soup?
Why should they be cooked at simmering rather than boiling temperature?
From the results of your experiments (see Experiments 61 and 62) explain
why soda is added to the tomatoes in Cream of Tomato Soup.
What is the purpose of adding the strained tomatoes or Tomato Sauce
_slowly_ to the White Sauce or milk?
Why should the soup be served _at once_ after combining the tomato
and milk mixture?
If enough Cream of Tomato Soup were prepared for two meals, how and when
should the tomatoes and White Sauce be mixed?
What is the price per can of tomatoes?
How many cupfuls in one can of tomatoes?
With the aid of _United States Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin
No. 28 and illustrations in this text, tabulate the composition of
tomatoes, whole milk (see Figure 64), cheese (see Figure 75), flour, and
bread (see Figure 77). Explain why Cream of Tomato Soup and Cheese Straws
make a desirable combination from the standpoint of composition and use in
the body.
LESSON XCVII
VEAL AND POTATOES
MUSCLE OF YOUNG ANIMALS.--The muscle of an undeveloped animal contains
more water than does the muscle of a mature animal. It is also lacking in
flavor and usually contains little fat. The meat does not keep so well as
that of a mature animal; therefore it should be used at once and not
allowed to hang.
[Illustration: FIGURE 65.--CUTS OF VEAL.]
CUTS OF VEAL (see Figure 65).
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| NAME OF CUT | FORM OF CUT | METHOD OF COOKING |
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| A. Loin. | Chops. | Sauteing. |
| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. |
| | | |
| B. Leg. | Steaks--veal cutlets | Sauteing. |
| | or veal steak. | Stewing. |
| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. |
| | | |
| C. Knuckle. | Whole. | Stewing. |
| | | Soup-making. |
| | | |
| D. Rib or Rack. | Chops. | Sauteing. |
| | Thick Pieces. | Roasting. |
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