|
APPLE GROWING
BY
M.C. BURRITT
NEW YORK
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY
MCMXII
COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY
OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY.
All rights reserved.
PREFACE
In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before
me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with
its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such
facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to
state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in
no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and
if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the
general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied.
The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of
practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York.
They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by
a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in
New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous
territory. These facts were first put together in something like
their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a
series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in
Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and
repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form.
The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the
Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts
and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the
manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the
same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on
Insects and Diseases and on Spraying.
M.C. BURRITT.
Hilton, N.Y.
February, 1912.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES 11
II. PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 18
III. PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD 30
IV. PRUNING THE TREES 48
V. CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING 62
VI. MANURING AND FERTILIZING 78
VII. INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE 92
VIII. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING 108
IX. HARVESTING AND STORING 127
X. MARKETS AND MARKETING 142
XI. SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 153
XII. THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 164
APPLE GROWING
CHAPTER I
THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES
The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the
last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use.
This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its
value and to the development of new methods of preparation for
consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the
apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand
and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be
cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other
appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a
list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their
apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy
specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter
evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us,
but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple,
especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized.
It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together
with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great
demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some
form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us
before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the
fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the
housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost
as good.
The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly
upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when
the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their
attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of
ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important
factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor
is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are
not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which
the figures show will be no less than startling.
PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN BARRELS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1910
1896 69,070,000
1897 41,530,000
1898 28,570,000
1899 37,460,000
1900 56,820,000
-----------
Total crop for five years 233,450,000
Average crop for five years 46,690,000
1901 26,970,000
1902 46,625,000
1903 42,626,000
1904 45,360,000
1905 24,310,000
------------
Total crop for five years 185,891,000
Average crop for five years 37,178,200
1906 38,280,000
1907 29,540,000
1908 25,850,000
1909 25,415,000
1910 23,825,000
Total crop for five years 142,910,000
------------
Average crop for five years 28,582,000
Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5,
No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American
Agriculturist."
It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000
barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of
fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of
the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than
the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900,
and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years,
ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second
five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods,
we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than
that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher
price of this fruit during the last ten years.
HEAVY PLANTINGS.--Moreover, it should be further noted that this
falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest
plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten years old
fruit growing regions like western New York have practically doubled
their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New York
State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County show
that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one
representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908
inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its
history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large
part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy
plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To them we
might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the
Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to
north Georgia.
It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good
the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that
hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly
broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in
Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent
of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly
broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new
plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not
much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the
whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if
they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees
throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of
over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and
while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and
the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden
harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting.
Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must
be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater
than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use
apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern
States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings
must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very
slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making
the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in
bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present
a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are
desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to
work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time,
they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general
farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm
apple orchard.
FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.--In the writer's opinion the future of apple
growing in the United States is likely to shape itself largely in the
great commercial regions. As these become more and more developed and
as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely
growing apples as a side line, except where he is delivering directly
to a special or a local market, will be crowded out. Here as elsewhere
it will be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the production of
apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the
most cheaply are bound to win out in the end.
It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to
plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very
favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth
while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the
enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit
directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future
of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard
as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant
future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions
surround the farm.
CHAPTER II
PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD
LOCATION.--Having decided that under certain conditions the planting
of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and having
ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the next step
will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard. In
choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative
importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. If the
orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will not
require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it
is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the
relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain
from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is
demanded.
Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard
should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm. The best
orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often
obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is
attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of
soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the
preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance
with what is expected of them.
SOILS.--In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, neither
very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important than
surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily worked.
The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt
to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose and dry.
A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a somewhat
heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil
for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The lighter the
soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, and so,
also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds
the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same way
light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the
large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils.
VARIETAL SOIL PREFERENCES are beginning to be recognized. We cannot go
into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few suggestions
regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light loams or
heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams,
are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil adaptation than
practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly after
a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather rich, moist, but well
drained soil, containing an abundance of organic matter. A light to
heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, is considered best.
Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam,
underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy
soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow
upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil
slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of
moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern
variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams.
The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of
convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires
much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be
convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to
the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being
equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway
is best.
THE SITE OF THE ORCHARD is a more important matter. Two essentials
should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a considerable
elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought
about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being heavier, it
falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the water
channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, being
lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or
cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A free
movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best
secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less,
is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below.
Frosts occur in still, clear air and these conditions occur most
frequently in the lower areas.
Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm
and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures
are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to
plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring
until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best
as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if
possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a
wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to
protect the orchard from heavy winds.
A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up
more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up
its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its
heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate
near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies
according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard
from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape
Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and the Western New York Apple
Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario.
Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The
selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed
by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best
soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are
unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not
planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of
factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but
one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even
the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down
general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application
is a matter of judgment.
VARIETIES.--A proper soil and a good location and site having been
selected, the next important question to be decided is the varieties
to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on this
question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too
often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly
viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one.
Personal preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and
good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are
too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to
learn the facts and then decide for yourself.
We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of
varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow
any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do
well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this
respect.
The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple
may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst
in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from
your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted
climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule
never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any
one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better
than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not
try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over
supply.
A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home
of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown
on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg
appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh,
and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the
Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with
these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally
favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows
some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and
plant them.
All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be
specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality.
Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more
definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these
factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in
planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The
purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the
general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general
table use; whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or
temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is
desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development
of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong
or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to
quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export.
The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson
of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified
for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that
they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of
varieties:
GENERAL MARKET APPLES DESSERT OR FANCY TRADE
COMMERCIAL BOX WELL
Baldwin McIntosh
Ben Davis Northern Spy
Hubbardson Fameuse
Northern Spy Wagener
King Grimes Golden
Rome Beauty Yellow Newton
Oldenburg Red Canada
Alexander King
Twenty Ounce Sutton
Winesap Hubbardson
York Imperial Esopus Spitzenburg
CULINARY AND GENERAL TABLE USE
Rhode Island Greening Grimes Golden
Gravenstein Twenty Ounce
Newtown Yellow Bellflower
Alexander Oldenburg
Tolman Sweet Sweet Winesap
GOOD PERMANENT GOOD TEMPORARY
TREES TREES--FILLERS
Baldwin McIntosh
Rhode Island Greening Wealthy
Northern Spy Wagener
McIntosh Rome Beauty
*King Oldenburg
*Twenty Ounce Jonathan
*Hubbardson Alexander
Alexander Twenty Ounce
Rome Beauty Hubbardson
* When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top
worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy.
Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years
for a paying crop).
FIVE YEARS OR UNDER EIGHT YEARS AND UP
Rome Beauty Esopus Spitzenburg
Oldenburg Fall Pippin
Maiden Blush Golden Russet
Wagener Northern Spy
Yellow Newton Baldwin
McIntosh Gravenstein
Fameuse Tolman Sweet
King
Rhode Island Gr.
Twenty Ounce
Winesap
ESPECIALLY HARDY STOCKS POOR RATHER WEAK GROWERS*
Northern Spy King
Tolman Sweet Twenty Ounce
Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg
Baldwin Hubbardson
Fameuse Grimes Golden
Winter Banana Sutton
Canada Red
* Other varieties are medium.
HIGH IN QUALITY LOCAL OR PEDDLER'S VARIETIES
McIntosh Rhode Island Greening
Esopus Spitzenburg Wealthy
Northern Spy McIntosh
Newtown Fameuse
Gravenstein Tolman Sweet
Red Canada Grimes Golden
Fameuse Jonathan
Grimes Golden
Hubbardson GOOD GENERAL MARKET VARIETIES
Rhode Island Greening
Baldwin
MEDIUM TO POOR QUALITY Rhode Island
King
Ben Davis Twenty Ounce
Oldenburg McIntosh
Rome Beauty Hubbardson
Roxbury Russet Northern Spy
GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES
Baldwin Newtown
Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg
Northern Spy Jonathan
Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern
latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too
cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered
that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a
guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the
variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The
characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For
example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in
quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor
very poor, but midway between.
We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a
matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is
not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions
and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had
better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be
called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard.
The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who
desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult
Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment
Station.
CHAPTER III
PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD
The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution
of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a
good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly
to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems,
whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are
met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of
the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business
offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general
relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are
essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to
remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate
the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose.
As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many
questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom
shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use
fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should
the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What
arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be
prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are
planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should
the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful
orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions.
WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less
important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it
is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be
planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young
trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter
injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct
advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well
established in the soil which enables them to start root growth
earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to
endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and
there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than
in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to
get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because
most of the trees are not sold until midwinter.
Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is
the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting
immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted
trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature
which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New
York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites
winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time
must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on
others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient
time, providing the conditions are favorable.
WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down.
Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of
the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who
has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost
any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only,
that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a
well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order
subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as
represented.
The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with
whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can
personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have
an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight,
secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and
get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away
from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern
latitude in order to secure trees of better growth.
All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when
the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick
of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the
bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at
least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree
is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent
training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an
expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred,
but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year
old seedling.
The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting
trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on
purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their
varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should
demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety
planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings
imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted
which is equally as good a method of propagation.
It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings,
but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer,
as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires
considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often
equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of
crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of
being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds
are seldom worth considering at any price.
FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use
fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's
opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but
we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for
himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in
the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the
space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet
in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in
larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages.
(See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand,
objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that
they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their
care often requires different operations and at different times from
the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the
permanent trees in the orchard.
Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important
characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should
come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are
available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or
standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and
plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be
dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely
proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more
difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few
advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are
advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II.
The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make
excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing
quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are
adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates
and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in
more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early
bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers.
On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in
the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this
nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off
several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent
management the objections to their use are easily overcome.
SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting
depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees
may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some
varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in
size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard
apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or
farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and
Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six
feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies
represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes
fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences
the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is
necessary to set them.
Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more
upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in
this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond
the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good
average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this
space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best,
as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close
enough for any standard variety.
RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees
will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an
acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common
method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method,
e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at
right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay
out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making
mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle
corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular
rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards
set on this plan.
A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable,
especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of
the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and
the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet
when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This
plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an
acre.
HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees
which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular
system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any
other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees
equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral
triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially
to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and
culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after
this method without error, and it is open to the objection of
inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while
the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after
this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows
(not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually
much closer together.
The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level
field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires
the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field
where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way
through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best,
about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required
for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this
plan.
_First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first
tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning
the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right
angles to each other.
_Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field,
set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance
apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the
fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the
field.
_Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other
the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field.
These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used
to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of
the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the
entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands
where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the
sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal
distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight.
On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more
simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn
with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well
for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good
advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral
triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on
small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid.
Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point
where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates
the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about
six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them
at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then
swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the
tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake
did.
The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at
different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the
hexagonal method.
Sq. Hex. Sq. Hex.
12 x 12 302 344 24 x 24 75 80
12 x 15 242 ... 24 x 30 60 ..
15 x 15 193 224 30 x 30 48 56
15 x 18 161 ... 30 x 36 40 ..
15 x 20 145 ... 33 x 33 40 46
15 x 30 96 ... 30 x 48 30 ..
18 x 18 134 156 30 x 60 24 ..
18 x 20 121 ... 36 x 36 33 39
20 x 20 108 124 40 x 40 27 31
20 x 30 72 ... 40 x 50 21 ..
It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from
four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the
trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of
this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between
the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the
trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the
number.
PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil
for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation
of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime
condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up,
cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the
best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be
done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by
setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland.
Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich
soil.
The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees
should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing,
thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of
manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means
of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover.
Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand
pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same
time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a
good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the
heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the
fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always
be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is
decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is
frequently advisable.
INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one
to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very
injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to
be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be
inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we
should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain
facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the
subject.
Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between
the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land
and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely
no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of
itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken
down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped
this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind.
The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring
cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the
season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small
vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the
young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much.
Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come
up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too
much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help
to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used.
After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory
orchard crop in some cases.
A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when
a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space
should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year
and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to
four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author
very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use
in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year,
beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year,
potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring,
followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a
good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying
crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and
at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of
the summer.
Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have
already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention
directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until
spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops
cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in
transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This
will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth.
From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which
to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young
apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and
remove crossing or interfering branches.
Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be
the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more
important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard
in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees,
leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At
Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall,
using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding
it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good
protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are
prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the
trees in addition to this.
CHAPTER IV
PRUNING THE TREES
Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first
thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature
accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by
starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In
the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each
individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of
many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach
maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too
expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife
and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and
competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's
method.
Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing
process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually
increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical
experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and
advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done.
As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and
should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning
becomes a more simple matter.
Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the
growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way
pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and
tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this
fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On
the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the
growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back
a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth.
The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some
varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate
and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit
of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old
age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its
uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth
checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the
development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree
soon resumes its natural upward growing habit.
Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and
carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use
to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction
above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a
lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely
thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced
the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually
results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by
an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or
injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or
readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top.
Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one. It may
sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the
Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more
theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by
the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning,
and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence
young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are
unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A
quiescent state is a better condition for this.
REASONS FOR PRUNING.--With these fundamental principles in mind we may
safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the desired end
is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from
that of an old one. There are five important things for which to prune
a young tree, namely:
1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time
of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very
long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to
two-thirds of the growth of the previous season.
2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the
humid climate of the Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to
prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in
order properly to color and mature the fruit.
3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three
branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the
ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice
is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top.
4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is
more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and
others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of
culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent
greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety
should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or
under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more
intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural
operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher
than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a
foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright
growing varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to
three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet;
while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height.
5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering
branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially
when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong
crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and
making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches
which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with
another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as
soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist.
IDEALS IN PRUNING.--The general method of pruning the old trees and
the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young
tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, the ideal
should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it
becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary
to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes. These we can
conveniently consider under six heads:
1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size,
shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very
important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it
out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained.
Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are
really worse than no pruning at all.
2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or
injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches
open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease
spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as
essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance.
In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or
injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease.
3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the
most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way
the operations of tillage, spraying, and harvesting. It is most
important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and
picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree
which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height
necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension
pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be
readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two
feet.
Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under
previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad
situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the
leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two
feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the
chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two
feet are heavy and clumsy to handle.
If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower
limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary,
however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a
mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation
is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature
tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well
cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches.
4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young
trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant
through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight
on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of
the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and
attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright
growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to
penetrate through the tree.
5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase
the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal
and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy
fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive
and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the
tree out of bearing.
6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and
distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper
balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best
regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect
balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely
approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches
removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near
the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than
picking off individual fruits, but not as effective.
TIME OF PRUNING.--The particular time of the year for pruning is not
vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be preferred
because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an
unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to
check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to the
tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it
frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or
injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter.
Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on
the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done at any
time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in
the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe
and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to
late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are
quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless
branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer
buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more
strong and vigorous.
In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut
should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright
growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce
the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees
leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree
grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never
leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree.
Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the
branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not
heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A stub left on a trunk or
large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where
the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main
branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is
needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow
storm, or a heavy load of fruit.
All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either
with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar
preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they
keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to
preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in
nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of
the paint.
PRUNING TOOLS.--The best tool to use in pruning is one which brings
you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control
to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool does
this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A good saw
should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its depth
should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at the
point. It should have a full, firm grip, be not more than thirty
inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should
not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in
crotches.
Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller,
one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees.
The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of
branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy,
as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too
cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity
too far away from his work for the best results.
FRUIT THINNING.--A matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is
thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That this is not
as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be, the
great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample
evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to whether
or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The
answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, but most
profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is
desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when the crop
of fruit is heavy.
The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known
as the "June drop," i.e., the falling off of those fruits not well
enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit
should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six
inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any
branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts
of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of
them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples
lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to
another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders
and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning.
The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at
first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment.
CHAPTER V
CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING
In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus
understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well
as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more
common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of
the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have
the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard
treatment--a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone."
With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the
soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few
years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod
"mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success
with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of
these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we
must again turn to underlying principles and purposes.
It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to
nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage
has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think
of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical
reasons for tillage.
THE EFFECTS OF TILLAGE on the soil are three fold, physical, chemical,
and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil
physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the feeding
area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission of air
warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature and
moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free
plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition of
organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater depth.
Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of
the soil and by checking evaporation.
Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should
be especially emphasized for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture
and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in
the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample
evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is
properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple
tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil
and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of
rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use.
As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as
the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no
consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there
is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it
available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film
moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be
available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage
supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in
another way?
It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard
culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed
vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or other mulch decaying in the
soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity.
By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some
extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by
cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and
plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the
grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish
these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of
moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may
well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet
lands.
Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical
experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a
large number of western New York orchards showing the results of
cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are
overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the
average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271
bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in
sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,--an increase of
thirty-five per cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County,
under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation
was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per
cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should
be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as
intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged.
These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it
is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might
give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will
be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more
advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the
drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled
trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It
often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a
general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of
cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this
question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the
commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good
results it would be preferred under these conditions.
LATE FALL AND EARLY SPRING PLOWING.--The common tillage practice in
the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall
or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or spring plowing
is best depends on two things: the character of the soil and
convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not
advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to
bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, medium
loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture
either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period
affords the most time.
On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land
must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the
plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a
large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this
on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this
work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best
distribution of labor.
After fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow
is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in
getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring.
Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the
orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose
loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts
too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On
spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best
results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow
bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is
passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light
shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the
soil only.
The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts
in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is
to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this
period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to
loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at
that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and
firmed again by the time drier weather comes on. A fairly deep
digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this
time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements.
After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is
carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by
making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best
accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth
harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the
season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be
varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements
earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As
soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of
tillage is to modify moisture conditions.
As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a
week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are
required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the
season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried
on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good
practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain.
Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier
tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight
or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the
more necessary does frequent cultivation become.
A COVER CROP is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually
considered a part of the system. It should be sown in midsummer as soon
as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July first to August
fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit
on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good
stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the locality, or the
earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. Absence of
sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation,
both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and
because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially
of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer.
In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation
should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can
thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size
and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature
its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in
a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be
stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and
foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late
that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter
killing.
The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple
orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely
associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover
crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects
on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In
addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to
check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking
up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the
wood.
SOD MULCH.--The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many
orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The one is
a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch system
the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or
is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil mulch
meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor
practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be
supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse
manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to
the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced
it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus
which is so necessary to the soil.
Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the
fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that
fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a
tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage
keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so
early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod
orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from
two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed
also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better
quality and flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier
and less crisp and juicy.
The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known.
Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better
and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more
numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and
stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees
kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season
that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood
growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper,
better distributed root system.
Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are
times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable
than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so
as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best
system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and
the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one
year in from three to five.
The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to
rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and
readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or
rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the
more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture
might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not
too unfavorable.
In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system
we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling
land:
1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to
fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop.
1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of
sowing cover crop according to conditions.
1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a
mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August.
1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow
rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August
fifteenth.
1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too
fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop.
1917. Same as 1912, etc.
PASTURING THE ORCHARD.--The sod mulch system explains itself and does
not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as pasture for
animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. An orchard is
considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are
turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. Results in
orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is
never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle, but that
fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used.
The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate,
that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst
possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the
branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high
as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which
cannot be too strongly deprecated.
Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful
practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the
ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which
usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed
manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some
extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the
season as they will destroy considerable fruit.
Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other
pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which
prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount
almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure
is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the
orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit.
Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double
utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the
animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it
adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food
can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals
should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in
pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is
undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management.
Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from
the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting
them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil
the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under
the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage,
especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more
advantageous than it would be commercially.
CHAPTER VI
MANURING AND FERTILIZING
Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the
previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to
point out another important function--that of a green manure crop
adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops
add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve
these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to
render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a
form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection
against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also
help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable
earlier.
There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous
and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and
improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no
plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant
food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to
these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food
in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from
the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots.
NON-LEGUMINOUS CROPS.--The most important of the non-leguminous crops
are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and millet. The
first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also in order of
importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green
manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, alfalfa,
cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the relative
advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some
of their characteristics and requirements.
Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the
young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A
particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite
late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than
most crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth
before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye
should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before September
1st--because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great
variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not
do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre.
Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard
cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter.
It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very
dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and
thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow
feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but
like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be
used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on
the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding.
Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops.
They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to
secure a good stand of them even in dry weather. Sown in late July in
the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much
moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their
broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in
winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a
large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape
makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs,
but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are
necessary to the acre.
Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing,
because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best
growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture
from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In
fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in
too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and
one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary
for a good seeding.
Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often
valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of
humus, without the expense of seeding. If they are not allowed to go
to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the
best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds
are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are
not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable.
LEGUMES.--In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and green
manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they are
more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they add
nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a good
stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for
several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed
usually has greater germinating power than a small one. This often
means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then
legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil conditions.
Still these should be present in good orchard soils. Drainage must be
good, the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical
condition, it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use
lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow
legumes satisfactorily.
Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as
green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of
obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the
medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier
soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will
grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well
adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat
easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank
enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are
deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as
well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required
per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen
to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson
twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds.
Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a
better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper
rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen
and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot be recommended
for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under
favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a
soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil
must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be
generally recommended.
Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick,
close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very
quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds
larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through
the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good
grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre
and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use
of this excellent crop.
Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth
trial as cover crops--soy beans in the North and cow peas in the
South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and
rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under
favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of
vegetation in a very short time. Being larger seeded, it is
considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons
than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in
drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart.
Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the
South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half
to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier
maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one
and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre.
Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of
nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their
use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of
wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable
to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the
orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two
kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined
with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed
of each should be used.
EARLY PLOWING.--Many people make the common mistake of thinking that
a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in June in
order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are several
reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place cultivation
is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out. Then
moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a
better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in the
spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly,
material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is
more abundant, which is very important.
An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must
be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When
it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not
justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is
being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not
an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root
system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops,
and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is
comparatively small, fertilization is less important than many
persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive
good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers
give but medium results.
ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.--Three elements are necessary for the growth of
apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these lime may
be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a
plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends on
the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. By
learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit
we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is
advisable.
Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter
a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of
the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen.
Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the
maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the
maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it
tends to produce poorly colored fruits.
When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot
to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a
dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees
are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow
color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in
long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than
under other conditions.
The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much
more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the
flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they
undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a
darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at
present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators
maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects
are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have
a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is
the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it
will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is
not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the
results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to
experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively.
STABLE MANURE.--The necessary plant food is best supplied by stable
manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light
application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This
amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an
application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will
add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil.
Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the
fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but
spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is
particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the
farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding
root area of the tree.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.--Where manure is not available or where it
cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may be
resorted to, after they have been experimentally tested out.
Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as has been
indicated, but where these do not grow well, or in seasons when they
have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good
substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the
other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after
growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or
cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two
applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are leachy
and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is
applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the soil with
a spring-tooth harrow.
To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred
pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric
acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should
be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably
just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before.
Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and
especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any
quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to
utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two
or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two. Wood ashes
are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide.
Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the
tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood
growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the
following year.
Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils
actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply
from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned
lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity,
to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of
the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil
by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils.
Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain
other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial
medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently
advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy
application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every
four or five years.
CHAPTER VII
INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE
It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their
farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than
there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect
apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people
had generally heard of codling moth, San Jose scale, apple scab, or
other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples
were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical
past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it
is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased
rapidly of late years.
REASONS FOR PEST INCREASE.--When there is an abundance of food and
conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will thrive
better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable.
As long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not
the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but as soon as
they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites
was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at least partly
responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has
upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, by
interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. Birds
are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the orchard
should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts the
marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less
remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the
millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States
from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the
necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen.
In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very
necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history
and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to
work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which
should include the several stages of the insect or disease, the point
of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be
most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect
the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat
them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and
three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and
whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their
life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out.
The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests
which it may be necessary to combat.
INSECT PESTS.--Of the many insects which affect either the tree or the
fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the most damage
and are the most difficult to control of all those in the Northeastern
States. According to their method of attack all insects may be divided
into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects are those which
actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are
combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the
following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree
or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the
juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or fruit. Of the biting insects
the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) apple
maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The four
sucking insects discussed are: (6) San Jose scale, (7) oyster shell
scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse.
1. THE CODLING MOTH, the most insidious of all apple pests, is mainly
responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth with a
wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The moths
appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. Each female is
supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the
leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. The
eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin
at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit. Three-fourths of
them enter the apple through its blow end.
After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time
they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they
leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar
now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in
rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in
which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when
the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there
are often two broods each season.
The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when
it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of
the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple
inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be
killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of
the cocoons on the bark of trees.
2. APPLE MAGGOT.--It is fortunate that the apple maggot, often called
the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the
fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much
more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly appears in
early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the
apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow
indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae are a
greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. From the
fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed
in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs.
Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be
placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is
to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose
hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this
insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference
for summer and autumn varieties.
3. THE BUD MOTH closely resembles the codling moth in form and size,
but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, after
hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown caterpillars
about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and a week or
two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict great damage
on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When full grown
the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head, are
about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a tube made
from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken
threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten days, takes
place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but one brood in the
North. These insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray
applied early before the buds open.
4. THE CIGAR CASE BEARER winters in its case attached to a twig. When
the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying its
case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender buds. By the
time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender
buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case. This
it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form
of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue feeding
about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although this is not
as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring, before
the tree is fully leafed out.
About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the
moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves
and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf
miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall
where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be
destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again
later to the opening leaf and flower buds.
5. CURCULIO BEETLES pass the winter under leaves and grass. In the
spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as the
young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture
made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little apple. The
eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core
where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. The larvae
then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they
pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit.
The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the
beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not as bad
in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young foliage as
soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating
curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it
is with the plum.
6. THE SAN JOSE SCALE, one of our worst apple tree pests, is a sucking
insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs or
branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant.
At first the growth is checked only, but as the insects develop their
work finally results in the death of the part, unless they are
destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the bark
under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size of a
pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, are
soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small
two-winged insects issue from these scales.
After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in
about a month begin the production of living young--minute, yellow,
oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender
beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In
about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they
change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves
bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in
one season and there are several generations in a season. This great
prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest.
In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are
soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime
and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be
applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both.
Thoroughness is most essential.
7. THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE, although it is essentially the same in its
habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as
bad a pest as the San Jose scale because it is less prolific, there
being but one brood a year. Still this scale often destroys a branch
and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as eggs under the scale
and hatch in late May or early June. After crawling about the bark for
two or three days, the young fix their beaks into it and remain
fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. By the end of the season
they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs
for the next season's crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and
sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically
control this scale. But the young may be destroyed in summer by a
contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap.
8. THE LEAF BLISTER MITE is a small, four-legged animal, so small as
hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter in the
bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes
to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green or
reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later develop
into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and
finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes
practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good
foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and
when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the
mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A
strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant
destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which
is practically the only time when they are vulnerable.
9. APHIDES, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. Although nearly
always present, it is only occasionally that they become so numerous
as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they are more often
serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched.
Their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of
the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish
lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this
condition, hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of
the growth of vegetation. From these winter eggs females are hatched
which bear living young, which may also bear living young and so on
for several generations until autumn, when eggs are again deposited
for the winter stage.
Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous
insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of
getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly
work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the
trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact
with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the
growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice
appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or
serious damage is likely to result.
These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has
to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and
tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but
they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as
they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating
worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young
orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers
dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some
extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or
some gas tar preparation.
DISEASES.--Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases which
attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to
contr |
