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THE ART OF TRAVEL or Shifts and Contrivances Available in Wild Countries
Francis Galton
first published in Great Britain by John Murray, London in 1872.
CONTENTS
THE ART OF TRAVEL
Preparatory Enquiries
Organising an Expedition
Outfit
Medicine
Surveying Instruments
Memoranda and Log-Books
Measurements
Climbing and Mountaineering
Cattle
Harness
Carriages
Swimming
Rafts and Boats
Fords and Bridges
Clothing
Bedding
Bivouac
Huts
Sleeping-Bags
Tents
Furniture
Fire
Food
Water for Drinking
Guns and Rifles
Gun-fittings and Ammunition
Shooting, hints on
Game, other means of capturing
Fishing
Signals
Bearings by Compass, Sun, etc.
Marks by the wayside
Way, to find
Caches and Depots
Savages, Management of
Hostilities
Mechanical Appliances
Knots
Writing Materials
Timber
Metals
Leather
Cords, String, and Thread
Membrane, Sinew, and Horn
Pottery
Candles and Lamps
Conclusion of the Journey
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
This Edition does not differ materially from the fourth. I have
incorporated some new material, including Colomb and Bolton's flashing
signals, but in other respects the Work is little altered. I therefore
reprint the
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
In publishing a fourth Edition of the 'Art of Travel,' it is well that I
should preface it with a few words of explanation on the origin and
intention of the Book and on the difference between this and former
Editions.
The idea of the work occurred to me when exploring South-western Africa
in 1850-51. I felt acutely at that time the impossibility of obtaining
sufficient information on the subjects of which it treats; for though the
natives of that country taught me a great deal, it was obvious that their
acquaintance with bush lore was exceedingly partial and limited. Then
remembering how the traditional maxims and methods of travelling in each
country differ from those of others, and how every traveller discovers
some useful contrivances for himself, it appeared to me, that I should do
welcome service to all who have to rough it--whether explorers,
emigrants, missionaries or soldiers,*--by collecting the scattered
experiences of many such persons in various circumstances, collating
them, examining into their principles, and deducing from them what might
fairly be called an "Art of Travel." To this end, on my return home, I
searched through a vast number of geographical works, I sought
information from numerous travellers of distinction and I made a point of
re-testing, in every needful case, what I had read or learned by hearsay.
[Footnote] * ". . . the soldier should be taught all such practical
expedients and their philosophy, as are laid down in Mr. Galton's useful
little book . . . "--'Minute by the late Sir James Outram on Army
Management.' Parliamentary Return, of May 240, p. 159.
It should be understood that I do not profess to give exhaustive
treatises on each of the numerous subjects comprised in this volume, but
only such information as is not generally known among travellers. A
striking instance of the limited geographical area over which the
knowledge of many useful contrivances extends, is that described as a
'Dateram,' p. 164, by which tent ropes may be secured in sand of the
loosest description. Though tents are used over an enormous extent of
sandy country, in all of which this simple contrivance would be of the
utmost value on every stormy night, and though the art of pitching tents
is studied by the troops of all civilised and partly civilised nations,
yet I believe that the use of the dateram never extended beyond the
limits of a comparatively small district in the south of the Sahara,
until I had described it in a former Edition; and further, my knowledge
of that contrivance was wholly due to a single traveller, the late Dr.
Barth.
The first Edition of the 'Art of Travel' was published in 1854: it was
far less comprehensive than the later ones; for my materials steadily
accumulate, and each successive Edition has shown a marked improvement on
its predecessor. Hitherto I have adhered to the original arrangement of
the work, but am now obliged to deviate from it, for the contents have
outgrown the system of classification I first adopted. Before I could
interpolate the new matter prepared for this Edition, I found it
necessary to recast the last one, by cutting it into pieces, sorting it
into fresh paragraphs and thoroughly revising the writing--disentangling
here and consolidating there. The present Edition will consequently be
found more conveniently arranged than those that preceded it, and, at the
same time, I trust the copiousness of its Index will enable persons to
find with readiness any passage they had remarked in a former Edition,
and to which they may desire again to refer.
I am still most thankful to strangers as well as to friends for
contributions of hints or corrections, having been indebted to many a
previously unknown correspondent for valuable information. I beg that
such communications may be addressed to me, care of my publisher, Mr.
Murray, 50, Albermarle Street, London.
* * * * *
P.S.--A reviewer of my Third Edition accused me of copying largely from
an American book, called 'The Prairie Traveller,' by, the then, Capt.
Randolph B. Marcy. I therefore think it well to remark that the first
Edition of that work was published in 1859 (Harper and Brothers, New
York;--by authority of the American War Department), and that the
passages in question are all taken from my second Edition published in
1856; part of them are copies of what I had myself written, the rest are
reprints of my quotations, as though the Author of the 'Prairie
Traveller' had himself originally selected them.
I take this opportunity of remarking that though I have been indebted for
information to a very large number of authors and correspondents, yet I
am sorry to be unable to make my acknowledgements except in comparatively
few instances. The fact is that the passages in this book are seldom
traceable to distinctly definite sources: commonly more than one person
giving me information that partially covers the same subject, and not
unfrequently my own subsequent enquiries modifying or enlarging the hints
I had received. Consequently I have given the names of authorities only
when my information has been wholly due to them, or when their
descriptions are so graphic that I have transferred them without
alteration into my pages, or else when their statements require
confirmation. It will be easy to see by the context to which of these
categories each quotation belongs.
Francis Galton
ART OF TRAVEL.
PREPARATORY INQUIRIES.
To those who meditate Travel.--Qualifications for a Traveller.--If you
have health, a great craving for adventure, at least a moderate fortune,
and can set your heart on a definite object, which old travellers do not
think impracticable, then--travel by all means. If, in addition to these
qualifications, you have scientific taste and knowledge, I believe that
no career, in time of peace, can offer to you more advantages than that
of a traveller. If you have not independent means, you may still turn
travelling to excellent account; for experience shows it often leads to
promotion, nay, some men support themselves by travel. They explore
pasture land in Australia, they hunt for ivory in Africa, they collect
specimens of natural history for sale, or they wander as artists.
Reputed Dangers of Travel.--A young man of good constitution, who is
bound on an enterprise sanctioned by experienced travellers, does not run
very great risks. Let those who doubt, refer to the history of the
various expeditions encouraged by the Royal Geographical Society, and
they will see how few deaths have occurred; and of those deaths how small
a proportion among young travellers. Savages rarely murder new-comers;
they fear their guns, and have a superstitious awe of the white man's
power: they require time to discover that he is not very different to
themselves, and easily to be made away with. Ordinary fever are seldom
fatal to the sound and elastic constitution of youth, which usually has
power to resist the adverse influences of two or three years of wild
life.
Advantages of Travel.--It is no slight advantage to a young man, to have
the opportunity for distinction which travel affords. If he plans his
journey among scenes and places likely to interest the stay-at-home
public, he will probably achieve a reputation that might well be envied
by wiser men who have not had his opportunities.
The scientific advantages of travel are enormous to a man prepared to
profit by them. He sees Nature working by herself, without the
interference of human intelligence; and he sees her from new points of
view; he has also undisturbed leisure for the problems which perpetually
attract his attention by their novelty. The consequence is, that though
scientific travellers are comparatively few, yet out of their ranks a
large proportion of the leaders in all branches of science has been
supplied. It is one of the most grateful results of a journey to the
young traveller to find himself admitted, on the ground of his having so
much of special interest to relate, into the society of men with whose
names he had long been familiar, and whom he had reverenced as his
heroes.
To obtain Information.--The centres of information respecting rude and
savage countries are the Geographical, Ethnological, and Anthropological
societies at home and abroad. Any one intending to travel should put
himself into communication with the Secretary, and become a member of one
or more of these Societies; he will not only have access to books and
maps, but will be sure to meet with sympathy, encouragement, and
intelligent appreciation. If he is about to attempt a really bold
exploration under fair conditions of success, he will no doubt be
introduced to the best living authorities on the country to which he is
bound, and will be provided with letters of introduction to the officials
at the port where he is to disembark, that will smooth away many small
difficulties and give him a recognised position during his travels.
Information on Scientific Matters.--Owing to the unhappy system of
education that has hitherto prevailed, by which boys acquire a very
imperfect knowledge of the structure of two dead languages, and none at
all of the structure of the living world, most persons preparing to
travel are overwhelmed with the consciousness of their incapacity to
observe, with intelligence, the country they are about to visit. I have
been very frequently begged by such persons to put them in the way of
obtaining a rudimentary knowledge of the various branches of science, and
have constantly made inquiries; but I regret to say that I have been
unable to discover any establishment where suitable instruction in
natural science is to be obtained by persons of the age and station of
most travellers. Nor do I know of any persons who advertise private
tuition in any of its branches whose names I might therefore be at
liberty to publish, except Professor Tennant, who gives private lessons
in mineralogy at his shop in the Strand, where the learner might easily
familiarise himself with the ordinary minerals and fossils, and where
collections might be purchased for after reference. An intending
traveller could readily find naturalists who would give lessons, in
museums and botanical gardens, adapting their instruction to his probable
wants, and he would thus obtain some familiarity with the character of
the principal plants and animals amongst which he would afterwards be
thrown. If he has no private means of learning the names of such persons,
I should recommend him to write to some public Professor, stating all
particulars, and begging the favour of his advice. The use of the sextant
may be learnt at various establishments in the City and East End of
London, where the junior officers of merchant vessels receive instruction
at small cost. A traveller could learn their addresses from the maker of
his sextant. He might also apply at the rooms of the Royal Geographical
Society, 1, Savile Row, London, where he would probably receive advice
suitable to his particular needs, and possibly some assistance of a
superior order to that which the instructors of whom I spoke profess to
afford. That well-known volume, 'The Admiralty Manual of Scientific
Inquiry,' has been written to meet the wants of uninformed travellers;
and a small pamphlet, 'Hints to Travellers,' has been published with the
same object, by the Royal Geographical Society. It is procurable at their
rooms. There is, perhaps, no branch of Natural History in which a
traveller could do so much, without more information than is to be
obtained from a few books, than that of the Science of Man. He should see
the large collection of skulls in the College of Surgeons, and the flint
and bone implements in the British Museum, the Christie Museum, and
elsewhere, and he should buy the principal modern works on anthropology,
to be carefully re-studied on his outward voyage.
Conditions of Success and Failure in Travel.--An exploring expedition is
daily exposed to a succession of accidents, any one of which might be
fatal to its further progress. The cattle may at any time stray, die, or
be stolen; water may not be reached, and they may perish; one or more of
the men may become seriously ill, or the party may be attacked by
natives. Hence the success of the expedition depends on a chain of
eventualities, each link of which must be a success; for if one link
fails at that point, there must be an end of further advance. It is
therefore well, especially at the outset of a long journey, not to go
hurriedly to work, nor to push forward too thoughtlessly. Give the men
and cattle time to become acclimatised, make the bush your home, and
avoid unnecessary hardships. Interest yourself chiefly in the progress of
your journey, and do not look forward to its end with eagerness. It is
better to think of a return to civilisation, not as an end to hardship
and a haven from ill, but as a close to an adventurous and pleasant life.
In this way, risking little, and insensibly creeping on, you will make
connections, and learn the capabilities of the country, as you advance;
all which will be found invaluable in the case of a hurried or disastrous
return. And thus, when some months have passed by, you will look back
with surprise on the great distance travelled over; for, if you average
only three miles a day, at the end of the year you will have advanced
1200, which is a very considerable exploration. The fable of the Tortoise
and the Hare is peculiarly applicable to travellers over wide and unknown
tracts. It is a very high merit to accomplish a long exploration without
loss of health, of papers, or even of comfort.
Physical Strength of Leader.--Powerful men do not necessarily make the
most eminent travellers; it is rather those who take the most interest in
their work that succeed the best; as a huntsman says, "it is the nose
that gives speed to the hound." Dr. Kane, who was one of the most
adventurous of travellers, was by no means a strong man, either in health
or muscle.
Good Temper.--Tedious journeys are apt to make companions irritable one
to another; but under hard circumstances, a traveller does his duty best
who doubles his kindliness of manner to those about him, and takes harsh
words gently, and without retort. He should make it a point of duty to do
so. It is at those times very superfluous to show too much
punctiliousness about keeping up one's dignity, and so forth; since the
difficulty lies not in taking up quarrels, but in avoiding them.
Reluctant Servants.--Great allowance should be made for the reluctant
co-operation of servants; they have infinitely less interest in the
success of the expedition than their leaders, for they derive but little
credit from it. They argue thus:--"Why should we do more than we
knowingly undertook, and strain our constitutions and peril our lives in
enterprises about which we are indifferent?" It will, perhaps, surprise a
leader who, having ascertained to what frugal habits a bush servant is
inured, learns on trial, how desperately he clings to those few luxuries
which he has always had. Thus, speaking generally, a Cape servant is
happy on meat, coffee, and biscuit; but, if the coffee or biscuit has to
be stopped for a few days, he is ready for mutiny.
ORGANISING AN EXPEDITION.
Size of Party.--The best size for a party depends on many considerations.
It should admit of being divided into two parts, each strong enough to
take care of itself, and in each of which is one person at least able to
write a letter,--which bus servants, excellent in every other particular,
are too often unable to do. In travel through a disorganised country,
where there are small chiefs and bands of marauders, a large party is
necessary; thus the great success of Livingstone's earlier expeditions
was largely due to his being provided with an unusually strong escort of
well-armed and warlike, but not too aggressive, Caffres. In other cases
small parties succeed better than large ones; they excite less fear, do
not eat up the country, and are less delayed by illness. The last fatal
expedition of Mungo Park is full of warning to travellers who propose
exploring with a large body of Europeans.
Solitary Travellers.--Neither sleepy nor deaf men are fit to travel quite
alone. It is remarkable how often the qualities of wakefulness and
watchfulness stand every party in good stead.
Servants.--Nature of Engagements.--The general duties that a servant
should be bound to, independently of those for which he is specially
engaged, are--under penalty of his pay being stopped, and, it may be, of
dismissal--to maintain discipline, take share of camp-duties and
night-watch, and do all in his power to promote the success of the
expedition. His wages should not be payable to him in full, till the
return of the party to the town from which it started, or to some other
civilised place. It is best that all clothing, bedding, etc., that the
men may require, should be issued out and given to them as a present, and
that none of their own old clothes should be allowed to be taken. They
are more careful of what is their own; and, by supplying the things
yourself, you can be sure that they are good in quality, uniform in
appearance, and equal in weight, while this last is ascertainable.
The following Form of Agreement is abridged from one that was used in Mr.
Austin's expedition in Australia. It seems short, explicit, and
reasonable:--
"We the undersigned, forming an expedition about to explore the interior
of ----, under Mr. A., consent to place ourselves (horses and equipments)
entirely and unreservedly under his orders for the above purpose, from
the date hereof until our return to----, or, on failure in this respect,
to abide all consequences that may result. We fully recognise Mr. B. as
the second, and Mr. C. as the third in command; and the right of
succession to the command and entire charge of the party in the order
thus stated.
"We severally undertake to use our best endeavours to promote the harmony
of the party, and the success of the expedition.
"In witness whereof we sign our names. (Here follow the signatures.) Read
over and signed by the respective parties, in my presence." (Here follows
the signature of some person of importance in the place where the
expedition is organised.)
By the words, "abide all consequences," the leader would be justified in
leaving a man to shift for himself, and refusing his pay, if the case
were a serious one.
Good Interpreters are very important: men who have been used by their
chiefs, missionaries, etc., as interpreters, are much to be preferred;
for so great is the poverty of thought and language among common people,
that you will seldom find a man, taken at hazard, able to render your
words with correctness. Recollect to take with you vocabularies of all
the tribes whom you are at all likely to visit.
Engaging Natives.--On engaging natives, the people with whom they have
lived, and to whom they have become attached and learnt to fear, should
impress on them that, unless they bring you back in safety, they must
never show their faces again, nor expect the balance of their pay, which
will only be delivered to them on your return.
Women.--Natives' Wives.--If some of the natives take their wives, it
gives great life to the party. They are of very great service, and cause
no delay; for the body of a caravan must always travel at a foot's pace,
and a woman will endure a long journey nearly as well as a man, and
certainly better than a horse or a bullock. They are invaluable in
picking up and retailing information and hearsay gossip, which will give
clues to much of importance, that, unassisted, you might miss. Mr. Hearne
the American traveller of the last century, in his charming book, writes
as follows, and I can fully corroborate the faithfulness with which he
gives us a savage's view of the matter. After the account of his first
attempt, which was unsuccessful, he goes on to say,--"The very plan
which, by the desire of the Governor, we pursued, of not taking any women
with us on the journey, was, as the chief said, the principal thing that
occasioned all our want: 'for,' said he, 'when all the men are heavy
laden, they can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable distance; and
if they meet with any success in hunting, who is to carry the produce of
the labour?' 'Women,' said he, 'were made for labour: one of them can
carry or haul as much as two men can do. They also pitch our tents, make
and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and in fact there is no
such thing as travelling any considerable distance, or for any length of
time, in this country without their assistance.' 'Women,' said he again,
'though they do everything are maintained at a trifling expense: for, as
they always stand cook, the very licking of their fingers, in scarce
times, is sufficient for their subsistence.'"
Strength of Women.--I believe there are few greater popular errors than
the idea we have mainly derived from chivalrous times, that woman is a
weakly creature. Julius C aesar, who judged for himself, took a very
different view of the powers of certain women of the northern races,
about whom he wrote. I suppose, that in the days of baronial castles,
when crowds of people herded together like pigs within the narrow
enclosures of a fortification and the ladies did nothing but needlework
in their boudoirs, the mode of life wasvery prejudicial to their nervous
system and muscular powers. The women suffered from the effects of ill
ventilation and bad drainage, and had none of the counteracting
advantages of the military life that was led by the males. Consequently
women really became the helpless dolls that they were considered to be,
and which it is still the fashion to consider them. It always seems to me
that a hard-worked woman is better and happier for her work. It is in the
nature of women to be fond of carrying weights; you may see them in
omnibuses and carriages, always preferring to hold their baskets or their
babies on their knees, to setting them down on the seats by their sides.
A woman, whose modern dress includes I know not how many cubic feet of
space, has hardly ever pockets of a sufficient size to carry small
articles; for she prefers to load her hands with a bag or other weighty
object. A nursery-maid, who is on the move all day, seems the happiest
specimen of her sex; and, after her, a maid-of-all work who is treated
fairly by her mistress.
OUTFIT.
It is impossible to include lists of outfit, in any reasonable space,
that shall suit the various requirements of men engaged in expeditions of
different magnitudes, who adopt different modes of locomotion, and who
visit different countries and climates. I have therefore thought it best
to describe only one outfit as a specimen, selecting for my example the
desiderata for South Africa. In that country the traveller has, or had a
few years ago, to take everything with him, for there were no civilised
settlers, and the natural products of the country are of as little value
in supplying his wants as those of any country can be. Again, South
African wants are typical of those likely to be felt in every part of a
large proportion of the region where rude travel is likely to be
experienced, as in North Africa, in Australia, in Southern Siberia, and
even in the prairies and pampas of North and South America. To make such
an expedition effective all the articles included in the following lists
may be considered as essential; I trust, on the other hand, that no
article of real importance is omitted.
Stores for general use.--These are to a great degree independent of the
duration of the journey.
Small Stores, various: -- lbs.
One or two very small soft-steel axes; a small file to
sharpen them; a few additional tools (see chapter on
Timber); spare butcher's knives..............................8
A dozen awls for wood and for leather, two of them in
handles; two gimlets; a dozen sail-needles; three palms;
a ball of sewing-twine; bit of beeswax; sewing-needles,
assorted; a ball of black and white thread; buttons; two
tailors' thimbles (see chapter on Cord, String, and
Thread)......................................................3
Two penknives; small metal saw; bit of Turkey gone; large
scissors; corkscrew..........................................1 1/2
Spring balances, from 1/4 lb. to 5 lbs. and from 1 lb. to
50 lbs. (or else a hand steelyard............................1 1/2
Fish-hooks of many sorts; cobbler's was; black silk; gut;
two or more fishing-lines and floats; a large ball of
line; thin brass wire, for springes (see chapters on
Fishing and Trapping)........................................2
Ball of wicks, for lamps; candle-mould (see chapter on
Candles); a few corks; lump of sulphur; amadou (see
chapter on Fire).............................................1 1/2
Medicines (see chapter on Medicine); a scalpel; a blunt-
pointed bistoury; and good forceps for thorns................1
A small iron, and an ironing-flannel; clothes-brush;
bottle of Benzine or other scouring drops....................3
______
Carried forward........................................21 1/2
Brought forward.................................................21 1/2
Bullet-mould, not a heavy one; bit of iron place for a
ladle; gun-cleaning apparatus; turnscrews; nipple-
wrench; bottle of fine oil; spare nipples; spare screw
for cock (see chapter on Gun-Fittings).......................2 1/2
Two macintosh water-bags, shaped for the pack saddle, of
one gallon each, with funnel-shaped necks, and having\
wide mouth (empty) (see chapter on Water for Drinking).......2 1/2
Composition for mending them, in two small bottles; and a
spare piece of macintosh.....................................2 1/2
Spare leather, canvas, and webbing, for girths; rings
and buckles.................................................20
Two small patrol-tents, poles, and pegs (see Chapter on
Tents)......................................................30
Small inflatable pontoon to hold one, or even two men (see
chapter on Rafts and Boats).................................10
Small bags for packing the various articles, independently
of the saddle bags.......................................... 4
Macintosh sheeting overall, to keep the pack dry.................4
_______
Total weight of various small stores...................95
Heavy Stores, various: --
Pack saddles, spare saddlery (see chapter on Harness);
bags for packing.........................................
Water-vessels (see chapter on Water for Drinking)...........
Heavy ammunition for sporting purposes. (1 lb. weight
gives 10 shots. Otherwise each armed man is supposed
to carry a long double-barrelled rifle of a very small
bore, say of 70, and ammunition for these is allowed
for below)...............................................
_________
Total weight of various heavy stores...............
Stationery: --
Two ledgers; a dozen note-books (see chapter on
Memoranda and Log-Books); paper..............................9
Ink; pens; pencils; sealing-wax; gum.............................2 1/2
Board to write upon...........................................2
Books to read, say equal to six vols. the ordinary size
of novels; and maps..........................................7 1/2
Bags and cases...................................................3
Sketching-books, colours, and pencils............................6
_________
Total weight of stationery............................30
Mapping: --
Two sextants; horizon and roof; lantern; two pints of
oil; azimuth compass; small aneroid; thermometers;
tin-pot for boiling thermometers; watches (see
chapter on Surveying Instruments)...........................18
Protractors; ruler; compasses; measuring-tape, etc.............. 3
Raper's Navigation; Nautical Almanac; Carr's Synopsis,
published by Weale; small tables, and small
almanacs; star maps..........................................4
Bags and baskets, well wadded....................................6
_________
Total weight of mapping materials.....................31
Natural History (for an occasional collector): --
Arsenical soap, 2 lbs.; camphor, 1/2 lb.; pepper,
1/2 lb.; bag of some powder to absorb blood, 2 lbs.;
tow and cotton, about 10 lbs.; scalpel, forceps
scissors, etc., 1/2 lb.; sheet brass, stamped for
labels, 1/2 lb..............................................16
Pill-boxes; cork; insect-boxes; pins; tin, for
catching and keeping and killing animals; nets
for butterflies (say bags and all)..........................10
Geological hammers, lens, clinometer, etc....................... 4
Specimens. (I make no allowance for the weight of
these, for they accumulate as stores are used up;
and the total weight is seldom increased.)..............
_______
Total weight of Natural History materials
(for an occasional collector.......................30
Stores for Individual Use.
For each white man (independently of duration of journey): --
Clothes; macintosh rug; ditto sheet; blanket-bag;
spare blanket...............................................30
Share of plates, knives, forks, spoons, pannikins,
or bowls.................................................... 2
Share of cooking-things, from pots, coffee-mill
kettles, etc................................................ 3
Spare knife, flints, steel, tinder-box, tinder,
four pipes.................................................. 2
Bags, 6 lbs......................................................6
Provisions for emergency --
Five days of jerked meat, at 3 lbs. a day (on
average).................................................15
Two quarts of water (on average), 4 lbs.; share of
kegs, 1 1/2 lb............................................8
_________
Total for each white man.............................66
For each white man, and for each six months: --
Tea and coffee, 9 lbs.; tobacco, 6 lbs; salt, 6 lbs.;
pepper, 1 lb................................................22
Brandy or rum, occasionally served out...........................6
White sugar, 2 lbs.; arrowroot, 1 lb.; dried onions,
etc., 3 lbs..................................................6
Ammunition for small-bored rifles, with reserve
powder and caps..............................................9
_________
Total for six months
(or at the rate of 7 lbs. per month)..............43
For each black man (independently of duration of journey): --
Bedding, etc.................................................... 9
Meat and water for emergencies, as above (about)................19
Share of cooking-things......................................... 2
_________
Total for each black man.............................30
For each black man, and for each six months: --
Tobacco, 6 lbs.; salt, pepper, etc., 5 lbs......................11
Presents which will have to be made him from time to time... ....6
_________
Total for six months
(or at the rate of 3 lbs. per month).............17
Presents and Articles for Payment.--It is of the utmost importance to a
traveller to be well and judiciously supplied with these: they are his
money, and without money a person can no more travel in Savagedom than in
Christendom. It is a great mistake to suppose that savages will give
their labour or cattle in return for anything that is bright or new: they
have their real wants and their fashions as much as we have; and, unless
what a traveller brings, meets either the one or the other, he can get
nothing from them, except through fear or compulsion.
The necessities of a savage are soon satisfied; and, unless he belongs to
a nation civilised enough to live in permanent habitations, and secure
from plunder, he cannot accumulate, but is only able to keep what he
actually is able to carry about his own person. Thus, the chief at Lake
Ngami told Mr. Andersson that his beads would be of little use, for the
women about the place already "grunted like pigs" under the burdens of
those that they wore, and which they had received from previous
travellers. These are matters of serious consideration to persons who
propose to travel with a large party, and who must have proportionably
large wants.
Speaking of presents and articles for payment, as of money, it is
essential to have a great quantity and variety of small change, wherewith
the traveller can pay for small services, for carrying messages, for
draughts of milk, pieces of meat, etc. Beads, shells, tobacco, needles,
awls, cotton caps, handkerchiefs, clasp-knives, small axes, spear and
arrow heads, generally answer this purpose.
There is infinite fastidiousness shown by savages in selecting beads,
which, indeed, are their jewellery; so that valuable beads, taken at
hap-hazard, are much more likely to prove failures than not. It would
always be well to take abundance (40 or 50 lbs. weight goes but a little
way) of the following cheap beads, as they are very generally
accepted,--dull white, dark blue, and vermilion red, all of a small size.
It is the ignorance of what are the received articles of payment in a
distant country, and the using up of those that are taken, which, more
than any other cause, limits the journeyings of an explorer: the demands
of each fresh chief are an immense drain upon his store.
Summary.--To know the minimum weight for which a proposed expedition must
find means of transport, the omitted figures must be supplied in the
following schedule, the others must be corrected where required, and the
whole must be added together.
Stores for general use:--
Various small stores 95 lbs.
Various heavy stores
Stationery 30
Mapping 31
Natural History (occasional) 30
Stores for Individual use:--
For each white man (at rate of 7 lbs. per month) 66
For each black man (at rate of 3 lbs. per month 30
Presents and articles of payment are usually of far
greater weight than all the above things put together.
TOTAL WEIGHT TO BE CARRIED BY EXPEDITION 282
Mem.--If meat and bread, and the like, have to be carried, a very large
addition of weight must be made to this list, for the weight of a daily
ration varies from 3 lbs., or even 4 lbs., to 2 lbs., according to the
concentration of nutriment in the food that is used. Slaughter animals
carry themselves; but the cattle-watchers swell the list of those who
have to be fed.
Means of Transport.--In order to transport the articles belonging to an
expedition across a wild and unknown country, we may estimate as
follows:--
Beasts of burthen:--
An ass will not usually care more than about (net weight) 65 lbs.
A small mule 90
A horse 100
An ox of an average greed 120
A camel (which rarely can be used by an explorer) 300
It is very inconvenient to take more than six pack-animals in a caravan
that has to pass over broken country, for so much time is lost by the
whole party in re-adjusting the packs of each member of it, whenever one
gets loose, that its progress is seriously retarded.
Carriages.--An animal--camels always excepted--draws upon wheels in a
wild country about two and a half times the weight he can carry.
lbs.
A light cart, exclusive of the driver, should not carry
more than..................................................800
A light waggon, such as one or two horses would trot
away with, along a turnpike road, not more than...........1500
A waggon of the strongest construction, not more than.........3000
Weight of Rations.--A fair estimate in commissariat matters is as follows:--
A strong waggon full of food carries 1000 full-day rations
The pack of an ox " 40 "
The pack of a horse " 30 "
A slaughter ox yields, as fresh meat 80 "
A fat sheep yields " 10 "
(N.B. Meat when jerked loses about one-half of its nourishing powers.)
MEDICINE.
General Remarks.--Travellers are apt to expect too much from their
medicines, and to think that savages will hail them as demigods wherever
they go. But their patients are generally cripples who want to be made
whole in a moment, and other suchlike impracticable cases. Powerful
emetics, purgatives, and eyewashes are the most popular physickings.
The traveller who is sick away from help, may console himself with the
proverb, that "though there is a great difference between a good
physician and a bad one, there is very little between a good one and none
at all."
Drugs and Instruments.--Outfit of Medicines,--A traveller, unless he be a
professed physician, has no object in taking a large assortment of drugs.
He wants a few powders, ready prepared; which a physician, who knows the
diseases of the country in which he is about to travel, will prescribe
for him. Those in general use are as follows:--
1. Emetic, mild; 2. ditto, very powerful, for poison (sulphate of zinc,
also used as an eye-wash in Ophthalmia). e. Aperient, mild; 4. ditto,
powerful. 5. Cordial for diarrhoea. 6. Quinine for ague. 7. Sudorific
(Dover's powder). 8. Chlorodyne. 9. Camphor. 10. Carbolic acid.
In addition to these powders, the traveller will want Warburg's
fever-drops; glycerine or cold cream; mustard-paper for blistering;
heartburn lozenges; lint; a small roll of diachylon; lunar-caustic, in a
proper holder, to touch old sores with, and for snake-bites; a scalpel
and a blunt-pointed bistoury, with which to open abcesses (the blades of
these should be waxed, to keep them from rust); a good pair of forceps,
to pull out thorns; a couple of needles, to sew up gashes; waxed thread,
or better, silver wire. A mild effervescing aperient, like Moxon's is
very convenient. Seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong for
frequent use in a tropical climate.
How to carry Medicines.--The medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxes
with a few letters punched both on their tops and bottoms, to indicate
what they contain, as Emet., Astr. etc. It is more important that the
bottoms of the boxes should be labelled than their tops; because when two
of them have been opened at the same time, it often happens that the tops
run a risk of being changed.
It will save continual trouble with weights and scales, if the powders be
so diluted with flour, that one Measureful of each shall be a full
average dose for an adult; and if the measure to which they are adopted
be cylindrical, and of such a size as just to admit a common lead-pencil,
and of a determined length, it can at any time be replaced by twisting up
a paper cartridge. I would further suggest that the powders be
differently coloured, one colour being used for emetics and another for
aperients.
Lint, to make.--Scrape a piece of linen with a knife.
Ointment.--Simple cerate, which is spread on lint as a soothing plaister
for sores, consists of equal parts of oil and wax; but lard may be used
as a substitute for the wax.
Seidlitz-powders are not often to be procured in the form we are
accustomed to take them in, in England; so a recipe for making 12 sets of
them, is annexed:--1 1/2 oz. of Carbonate of Soda and 3 oz. of Tartarised
Soda, for the blue papers; 7 drachms of Tartaric Acid, for the white
papers.
Bush Remedies.--Emetics.--For want of proper physic, drink a charge of
gunpowder in a tumblerful of warm water of soap-suds, and tickle the
throat.
Vapour-baths are used in many countries, and the following plan, used in
Russia, is often the most convenient. Heat stones in the fire, and put
them on the ground in the middle of the cabin or tent; on these pour a
little water, and clouds of vapour are given off. In other parts of the
world branches are spread on hot wood-embers, and the patient is placed
upon these, wrapped in a large cloth; water is then sprinkled on the
embers, and the patient is soon covered with a cloud of vapour. The
traveller who is chilled or over-worked, and has a day of rest before
him, would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy.
Bleeding and Cupping'.--Physicians say, now-a-days that bleeding is
rarely, if ever, required; and that frequently it does much harm; but
they used to bleed for everything. Many savages know how to cup: they
commonly use a piece ofa horn as the cup, and they either suck at a hole
in the top of the horn, to produce the necessary vacuum, or they make a
blaze as we do, but with a wisp of grass.
Illnesses.--Fevers of all kinds, diarrhoea, and rheumatism, are the
plagues that most afflict travellers; ophthalmia often threatens them.
Change of air, from the flat country up into the hills, as soon as the
first violence of the illness is past, works wonders in hastening and
perfecting a cure.
Fever.--The number of travellers that have fallen victims to fever in
certain lands is terrible: it is a matter of serious consideration
whether any motives, short of imperious duty, justify a person in braving
a fever-stricken country. In the ill-fated Niger expedition, three
vessels were employed, of which the 'Albert' stayed the longest time in
the river, namely two months and two days. Her English crew consisted of
62 men; of these, 55 caught fever in the river, and 23 died. Of the
remaining seven, only two ultimately escaped scot-free; the others
suffering, more or less severely, on their return to England. In Dr.
McWilliams's Medical History of this expedition, it is laid down that the
Niger fever, which may be considered as a type of pestilential fever
generally, usually sets in sixteen days after exposure to the malaria;
and that one attack, instead of acclimatising the patient, seems to
render him all the more liable to a second. Every conceivable precaution
known in those days, had been taken to ensure the health of the crew of
the 'Albert.' A great discovery of modern days is the power of quinine to
keep off many types of fever. A person would, now, have little to fear in
taking a passage in a Niger steamer; supposing that vessels ran regularly
up that river. The quinine he would take, beginning at the coast, would
render him proof against fever, until he had passed the delta; but
nothing would remove the risk of a long sojourn in the delta itself.
However, I should add that Dr. Livingstone's experience on the zambesi
throws doubt on the power of quinine to keep off the type of fever that
prevails upon that river.
Precautions in unhealthy Places.--There are certain precautions which
should be borne in mind in unhealthy places, besides that which I have
just mentioned of regularly taking small doses of quinine, such as never
to encamp to the leeward of a marsh; to sleep close in between large
fires, with a handkerchief gathered round your face (natural instinct
will teach this); to avoid starting too early in the morning; and to
beware of unnecessary hunger, hardship, and exposure. It is a
widely-corroborated fact that the banks of a river and adjacent plains
are often less affected by malaria than the low hills that overlook them.
Diarrhoea.--With a bad diarrhoea, take nothing but broth, rice water, and
it may be rice, in very small quantities at a meal, until you are quite
restored. The least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse.
Ophthalmia'.--Sulphate of zinc is invaluable as an eyewash: for
ophthalmia is a scourge in parts of North and South Africa, in Australia,
and in many other countries. The taste of the solution which should be
strongly astringent, is the best guide to its strength.
Tooth-ache.--Tough diet tries the teeth so severely, that a man about to
undergo it, should pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves England. An
unskilled traveller is very likely to make a bad job of a first attempt
at tooth-drawing. By constantly pushing and pulling an aching tooth, it
will in time loosen, and perhaps, after some weeks, come out.
Thirst.--Pour water over the clothes of the patient, and keep them
constantly wet; restrain his drinking, after the first few minutes, as
strictly as you can summon heart to do it. (See "Thirst" in the chapter
on "Water.") In less severe cases, drink water with a tea-spoon; it will
satisfy a parched palate as much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls,
and will disorder the digestion very considerably less.
Hunger.--Give two or three mouthfuls, every quarter of an hour, to a man
reduced to the last extremity by hunger; strong broth is the best food
for him.
Poisoning.--The first thing is to give a powerful emetic, that whatever
poison still remains unabsorbed in the stomach, may be thrown up. Use
soap-suds or gunpowder (see Emetics) if proper emetics are not at hand.
If there be violent pains and gripings, or retchings, give plenty of
water to make the vomitings more easy. Next, do your best to combat the
symptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed before the
emetic acted. Thus, if the man's feet are cold and numbed, put hot stones
against them, and wrap them up warmly. If he be drowsy, heavy, and
stupid, give brandy and strong coffee, and try to rouse him. There is
nothing more to be done, save to avoid doing mischief.
Fleas.--"Italian flea-powder," sold in the East, is really efficacious.
It is the powdered "Pire oti" (or flea-bane), mentioned in Curzon's
'Armenia' as growing in that country; it has since become an important
article of export. A correspondent writes to me, "I have often found a
light cotton or linen bag a great safeguard against the attacks of fleas.
I used to creep into it, draw the loop tight round my neck, and was thus
able to set legions of them at defiance."
Vermin on the Person.--I quote the following extract from Huc's 'Travels
in Tartary':--"We had now been travelling for nearly six weeks, and still
wore the same clothing we had assumed on our departure. The incessant
pricklings with which we were harassed, sufficiently indicated that our
attire was peopled with the filthy vermin to which the Chinese and
Tartars are familiarly accustomed; but which, with Europeans, are objects
of horror and disgust. Before quitting Tchagan-Kouren, we had bought in a
chemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth of mercury. We now made with it a
prompt and specific remedy against the lice. We had formerly got the
receipt from some Chinese; and, as it may be useful to others, we think
it right to describe it here. You take half an ounce of mercury, which
you mix with old tea-leaves previously reduced to paste by mastication.
to render this softer, you generally add saliva; water could not have the
same effect. You must afterwards bruise and stir it a while, so that the
mercury may be divided into little balls as fine as dust. (I presume the
blue pill is a pretty exact equivalent to this preparation.) You infuse
this composition into a string of cotton, loosely twisted, which you hang
round the neck; the lice are sure to bite at the bait, and they thereupon
as surely swell, become red, and die forthwith. In China and in Tartary
you have to renew this salutary necklace once a month."
Blistered Feet.--To prevent the feet from blistering, it is a good plan
to soap the inside of the stocking before setting out, making a thick
lather all over it. A raw egg broken into a boot, before putting it on,
greatly softens the leather: of course the boots should be well greased
when hard walking is anticipated. After some hours on the road, when the
feet are beginning to be chafed, take off the shoes, and change the
stockings; Putting what was the right stocking on the left foot, and the
left stocking on the right foot. Or, if one foot only hurts, take off the
boot and turn the stocking inside out. These were the plans adopted by
Captain Barclay. when a blister is formed, "rub the feet, on going to
bed, with spirits mixed with tallow dropped from a candle into the palm
of the hand; on the following morning no blister will exist. The spirits
seem to possess the healing power, the tallow serving only to keep the
skin soft and pliant. This is Captain Cochrane's advice, and the remedy
was used by him in his pedestrian tour." (Murray's Handbook of
Switzerland.') The recipe is an excellent one; pedestrians and teachers
of gymnastics all endorse it.
Rarefied Air, effects of.--On high plateaux or mountains new-comers must
expect to suffer. The symptoms are described by many South American
travellers; the attack of them is there, among other names, called the
puna. The disorder is sometimes fatal to stout plethoric people; oddly
enough, cats are unable to endure it: at villages 13,000 feet above the
sea, Dr. Tschudi says that they cannot live. Numerous trials have been
made with these unhappy feline barometers, and the creatures have been
found to die in frightful convulsions. The symptoms of the puna are
giddiness, dimness of sight and hearing, headache, fainting-fits, blood
from mouth, eyes, nose, lips, and a feeling like sea-sickness. Nothing
but time cures it. It begins to be felt severely at from 12,000 to 13,000
feet above the sea. M. Hermann Schlagintweit, who has had a great deal of
mountain experience in the Alps and in the Himalayas, up to the height of
20,000 feet or more, tells me that he found the headache, etc., come on
when there was a breeze, far more than at any other time. His whole party
would awake at the same moment, and begin to complain of the symptoms,
immediately on the commencement of a breeze. The symptoms of overwork are
not wholly unlike those of the puna, and many young travellers who have
felt the first, have ascribed them to the second.
Scurvy has attacked travellers even in Australia; and I have myself felt
symptoms of it in Africa, when living wholly on meat. Any vegetable diet
cures it: lime-juice, treacle, raw potatoes, and acid fruits are
especially efficacious. Dr. Kane insists on the value of entirely raw
meat as a certain anti-scorbutic: this is generally used by the
Esquimaux.
Haemorrhage from a Wound.--When the blood does not pour or trickle in a
steady stream from a deep wound, but jets forth in pulses, and is of a
bright red colour, all the bandages in the world will not stop it. It is
an artery that is wounded; and, unless there be some one accessible, who
knows how to take it up and tie it, I suppose that the method of our
fore-fathers is the only one that can be used as you would for a
snake-bite (see next paragraph); or else to pour boiling grease into the
wound. This is, of course, a barbarous treatment, and its success is
uncertain, as the cauterised artery may break out afresh; still, life is
in question, and it is the only hope of saving it. After the cautery, the
wounded limb should be kept perfectly still, well raised, and cool, until
the wound is nearly healed. A tourniquet, which will stop the blood for a
time, is made by tying a strong thong, string, or handkerchief firmly
above the part, putting a stick through, and screwing it tight. If you
know whereabouts the artery lies, which is the object to compress, put a
stone over the place under the handkerchief. The main arteries follow
pretty much the direction of the inner seams of the sleeves and trousers.
Snake-bites.--Tie a string tight above the part, suck the wound, and
caustic it as soon as you can. Or, for want of caustic, explode gunpowder
in the wound; of else do what Mr. Mansfield Parkyns well suggests, i.e.,
cut away with a knife, and afterwards burn out with the end of your iron
ramrod, heated as near a white heat as you can readily get it. The
arteries lie deep, and as much flesh may, without much danger, be cut or
burnt into, as the fingers can pinch up. The next step is to use the
utmost energy, and even cruelty, to prevent the patient's giving way to
that lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake-poison,
and too often ends in death.
Wasp and Scorpion-stings.--the Oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is a
good application; should the scorpion be large, his sting must be treated
like a snake-bite.
Broken Bones.--It is extremely improbable that a man should die, in
consequence of a broken leg or arm, if the skin be uninjured' but, if the
broken end forces its way through the flesh, the injury is a very serious
one. Abscesses form, the parts mortify, and the severest consequences
often follow. Hence, when a man breaks a bone, do not convert a simple
injury into a severe one, by carrying him carelessly. If possible, move
the encampment to the injured man, and not vice versa. Mr. Druitt
says:--"When a man has broken his leg, lay him on the other side, put the
broken limb exactly on the sound one, with a little straw between, and
tie the two legs together with handkerchiefs. Thus the two legs will move
as one, and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much, nor yet come
through the skin."
Drowning.--A half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry, heated clothes,
hot stones, etc., placed against his feet, and his head must be raised
moderately. Human warmth is excellent, such as that of two big men made
to lie close up against him, one on each side. All rough treatment is not
only ridiculous but full of harm; such as the fashion--which still exists
in some places--of hanging up the body by the feet, that the swallowed
water may drain out of the mouth.
I reprint here the instructions circulated by Dr. Marshall Hall:--
"1. Treat the patient instantly, on the spot, in the open air, exposing
the face and chest to the breeze (except in severe weather).
"To Clear the Throat--2. Place the patient gently on the face, with one
wrist under the forehead; all fluids and the tongue itself then fall
forwards, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. If there be
breathing--wait and watch; if not, or if it fail,--
"To Excite Respiration--3. Turn the patient well and instantly on his
side, and--4. Excite the nostrils with snuff, the throat with a feather,
etc., dash cold water on the face previously rubbed warm. If there be no
success, lose not a moment but instantly--
"To Imitate Respiration--5. Replace the patient on his face, raising and
supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress;--6.
Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond, and then
briskly on the face, alternately; repeating these measures deliberately,
efficiently, and perseveringly fifteen times in the minute, occasionally
varying the side; when the patient reposes on the chest, this cavity is
compressed by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place; when he
is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and inspiration occurs.
7. when the prone position is resumed, make equable but efficient
pressure, with brisk movement, along the back of the chest; removing it
immediately before rotation on the side: the first measure augments the
expiration, the second commences inspiration. The result
is--Respiration;--and, if not too late,--Life.
"To induce Circulation and Warmth--8. Rub the limbs upwards, with firm
grasping pressure and with energy, using handkerchiefs, etc. by this
measure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the heart. 9. Let
the limbs be thus dried and warmed, and then clothed, the bystanders
supplying coats, waistcoats, etc. 10.. Avoid the continuous warm-bath,
and the position on or inclined to the back."
Litter for the Wounded.--If a man be wounded or sick, and has to be
carried upon the shoulders of others, make a little for him in the Indian
fashion; that is to say, cut two stout poles, each 8 feet long, to make
its two sides, and three other cross-bars of 2 1/2 feet each, to be
lashed to them. Then supporting this ladder-shaped framework over the
sick man as he lies in his blanket, knot the blanket up well to it, and
so carry him off palanquin-fashion. One cross-bar will be just behind his
head, another in front of his feet; the middle one will cross his
stomach, and keep him from falling out; and there will remain two short
handles for the carriers to lay hold of. The American Indians carry their
wounded companions by this contrivance after a fight, and during a
hurried retreat, for wonderful distances. A king of waggon-roof top can
easily be made to it, with bent boughs and one spare blanket. (See
Palanquin.)
[Black and white sketch of two 'Indians' carrying litter].
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS.
In previous editions I reprinted here, with a few trifling alterations,
part of a paper that I originally communicated to the Royal Geographical
Society, and which will be found at the end of their volume for 1854. In
addition to it, communications are published there from Lieutenant Raper,
Admiral FitzRoy, Admiral Smyth, Admiral Beechey, and Colonel Sykes; the
whole of which was collected under the title of 'Hints to Travellers;'
they were printed in a separate form and widely circulated. When the
edition was exhausted, a fresh Committee was appointed by the Council of
the Royal Geographical society, consisting of Admiral sir George Back,
Admiral R. Collinson, and myself, to revise the pamphlet thoroughly. This
process was again gone through in 1871, and now the pamphlet is so much
amended and enlarged that I should do no good by making extracts. It is
much better that intending travellers should apply for this third edition
of the 'Hints to Travellers' at the society's rooms, 1, Savile Row: for
it gives a great deal of information upon instruments that they would
find of real value. Its price is 1s.
Porters for delicate Instruments.--Entrust surveying instruments and
fragile articles to come respectable old savage, whose infirmities compel
him to walk steadily. He will be delighted at the prospect of picking up
a living by such easy service.
Measuring low angles by reflexion.--an ordinary artificial horizon is
useless for very low angles. They can be measured to within two or three
minutes, by means of a vertical point of reference obtained in the
following manner:--Tie two pieces of thread, crossing each other at two
feet above the ground, put the vessel of mercury underneath it, and look
down upon the mercury. When the eye is so placed, that the crossed
threads exactly cover their reflexion, the line of sight is truly
vertical; and, if the distant object be brought down to them by the
sextant, the angle read off will be 90 degrees + altitude. Captain
George's arrangement of glass floating on mercury (made by Cary, Fleet
Street, London), allows of very low angles being observed, but the use of
this instrument requires considerable caution as to the purity of the
mercury and the cleanliness of the glass.
Substitute for glass roof to Horizon.--For want of a glass roof to place
over the mercury a piece of gauze stretched over the vessel will answer
very tolerably for the purpose of keeping off the wind. The diameter of
the pupil of the eye is so large, compared to the thickness of the
threads of the gauze, that the latter offer little impediment to a clear
view of the image.
Silvering Glasses for Sextants.--"Before taking leave of this subject it
may not be unimportant to describe the operation of silvering the glasses
of sextants, as those employed on surveying duties very frequently have
to perform the operation.
"The requisites are clean tinfoil and mercury (a hare's foot is
handy)--lay the tinfoil, which should exceed the surface of the glass by
a quarter of an inch on each side, on a smooth surface (the back of a
book), rub it out smooth with the finger, add a bubble of mercury, about
the size of a small shot, which rub gently over the tinfoil until it
spreads itself and shows a silvered surface, gently add sufficient
mercury to cover the leaf so that its surface is fluid. Prepare a slip of
paper the size of the tinfoil. Take the glass in the left hand,
previously well cleaned, and the paper in the right. Brush the surface of
the mercury gently to free it from dross. Lay the paper on the mercury,
and the glass on it. Pressing gently on the glass, withdraw the paper.
turn the glass on its face, and leave it on an inclined plane to allow
the mercury to flow off, which is accelerated by laying a strip of
tinfoil as a conductor to its lower edge. The edges may, after twelve
hours' rest, be removed. In twenty-four hours give it a coat of varnish,
made from spirits of wine and red sealing-wax. It may be as well to
practise on small bits of common glass, which will soon prove the degree
of perfection which the operator has attained." (Admiral Sir E. Belcher.)
MEMORANDA AND LOG-BOOKS.
Best form for Memoranda.--I have remarked that almost every traveller who
is distinguished for the copiousness and accuracy of his journals, has
written them in a remarkably small but distinct handwriting. Hard
pencil-marks (HHH pencils) on common paper, or on metallic paper are very
durable. Dr. Barth wrote his numerous observations entirely in
Indian-ink. He kept a tiny saucer in his pocket, rubbed with the ink;
when he wanted to use it, he rubbed it up with his wetted finger-tip, or
resupplied it with fresh ink, and filled his pen and wrote. Captain
Burton wrote very much in the dark, when lying awake at night; he used a
board with prominent lines of wood, such as is adopted by the blind. It
is very important that what is written should be intelligible to a
stranger after a long lapse of time. A traveller may die, and his
uncompleted work perish with him; or he may return, and years will pass
by, and suddenly some observations he had made will be called in
question.
Professor J. Forbes says:--"The practice which I have long adopted is
this:--to carry a memorandum-book with Harwood's prepared paper" (in this
point of detail I do not concur; see next paragraph) "and metallic
pencil, in which notes and observations and slight sketches of every
description, are made on the spot, and in the exact order in which they
occur. These notes are almost ineffaceable, and are preserved for
reference. They are then extended, as far as possible, every evening with
pen and ink, in a suitable book, in the form of a journal; from which,
finally, they may be extracted and modified for any ultimate purpose. The
speedy extension of memoranda has several great advantages: it secures a
deliberate revision of observations, whether of instruments or of nature,
whilst further explanation may be sought, and very often whilst
ambiguities or contradictions admit of removal by a fresh appeal to
facts. By this precaution, too, the risk of losing all the fruits of some
weeks of labour, by the loss of a pocket-book, may be avoided."
It has occurred to me, frequently, to be consulted about the best was of
keeping MSS. Captain Blakiston, who surveyed the northern part of the
Rocky Mountains, and subsequently received the medal of the Royal
Geographical Society, for his exploration and admirable map of the
Yang-tse-Kiang, in China, paid great attention to the subject: he was
fully in possession of all I had to say on the matter; and I gladly quote
the method he adopted in North America, with slight modifications,
according to the results of his experience, and with a few trivial
additions of my own. For the purposes of memoranda and mapping data, he
uses three sets of books, which can be ordered at any lithographer's:--
No. 1. pocket Memorandum Book, measuring three inches and a half by five,
made of strong paper. (Captain Blakston did not use, and I should not
advise travellers to use, "prepared" paper, for it soon becomes rotten,
and the leaves fall out; besides that, wet makes the paper soppy.) The
books are paged with bold numbers printed in the corners; two faint red
lines are ruled down the middle of each page, half an inch apart, to
enable the book to be used as a field-surveyor's book when required. In
this pocket=book, every single thing that is recorded at all, is
originally recorded with a hard HHH pencil. Everything is written
consecutively, without confusion or attempt to save space. There may
easily be 150 pages in each of these books; and a sufficient number
should be procured to admit of having at least one per month. Do not
stint yourself in these.
No. 2. Log-Book.--This is an orderly way of collecting such parts of the
surveying material as has been scattered over each day in your note-book.
It is to be neatly written out, and will become the standard of future
reference. By using a printed form, the labour of drawing up the log on
the one hand, and that of consulting it on the other, will be vastly
diminished. I give Captain Blakiston's form, in pages 28, 29, and I would
urge intending travellers not to depart from it without very valid
reasons, for it is the result of considerable care and experience. The
size in which the form is printed here is not quite accurate, because the
pages of this book are not large enough to admit of it, but the
proportion is kept. The actual size is intended to be five and a half
inches high and nine inches wide, so that it should open freely along one
of the narrow sides of the page, in the way that all memoranda books
ought to open. Four pages go to a day; of these the pages 1 and 2 are
alone represented in this book, pages 3 and 4 being intended to be left
blank.
[P 28 and p 29 show samples of the log book pages being described].
The bold figures 17 and 18 in the right-hand corners of the form I give,
show how the pages should be numbered. The lines in p. 18 should be faint
blue.
No. 3. Calculation Book.--This should be of the same size and shape as
the Log Book, and should contain outline forms for calculations. The
labour and confusion saved by using these, and the accuracy of work that
they ensure, are truly remarkable. The instruments used, the observations
made, and especially the tables employed, are so exceedingly diverse,
that I fear it would be to little purpose if I were to give special
examples: each traveller must suit himself. I will, therefore, simply
make a few general remarks on this subject, in the following paragraph.
Number of Observations requiring record.--A traveller does excellently,
who takes latitudes by meridian altitudes, once in the twenty-four hours;
a careful series of lunars once a fortnight, on an average; compass
variations as often; and an occulation now and then. He will want,
occasionally, a time observation by which to set his watch (I am
supposing he uses no chronometer). He ought therefore to provide himself
with outline forms for calculating these observations, even if he finds
himself obliged to have them printed or lithographed on purpose; and in
preparing them, he should bear the following well-known maxims in mind:--
Let all careful observations be in doubles. If they be for latitudes,
observe a star N. and a star S.; the errors of your instruments will then
affect the results in opposite directions, and the mean of the results
will destroy the error. So, if for time, observe in doubles, viz., a star
E. and a star W. Also, if for lunars, let your sets be in doubles--one
set of distances to a star E. of moon, and one to a star W. of moon.
Whenever you begin on lunars, give three hours at least to them, and
bring away a reliable series; you will be thus possessed of a certainty
to work upon, instead of the miserably unsatisfactory results obtained
from a single set of lunars taken here and another set there, scattered
all over the country, and impossible to correlate. A series should
consist of six sets, each set including three simple distances. Three of
these sets should be to a star or stars E. of moon, and three to a star
or stars W. of moon. Lunars not taken on the E. and W. plan are almost
worthless, no matter how numerous they may be, for the sextant, etc.,
might be inaccurate to any amount, and yet no error be manifest in their
results. But the E. and W. plan exposes errors mercilessly, and also
eliminates them. One of the best authorities on the requirements of
sextant observations in rude land travel, the Astronomer Royal of Cape
Town, says to this effect:--"Do not observe the altitude of the star in
taking lunars, but compute it. The labour requisite for that observation
is better bestowed in taking a large number of distances." So much
delicacy of hand and of eyesight is requisite in taking lunars that shall
give results reliable to seven or eight miles, and so small an exertion
or flurry spoils that delicacy, that economy of labour and fidget is a
matter to be carefully studied.
These things being premised, it will be readily understood that outline
forms sufficient for an entire series of lunars will extend over many
pages--they will, in fact, require eighteen pages. There are four sets of
observations for time:--one E. and one W., both at beginning and close of
the whole; one for latitudes N. and S.; six for six sets of lunars, as
described above; six for the corresponding altitudes of the stars, which
have to be computed; and, finally, one page for taking means, and
recording the observations for adjustment, etc. Each double observation
for latitude would take one page; each single time observation one page;
and each single compass variation one page. An occulation would require
three pages in all; one of which would be for time. At this rate, and
taking the observations mentioned above, a book of 500 pages would last
half a year. Of course where the means of transport is limited,
travellers must content themselves with less. Thus Captain Speke, who
started on his great journey amply equipped with log-books and
calculation-books, such as I have described, found them too great an
incumbrance, and was compelled to abandon them. The result was, that
though he brought back a very large number of laborious observations,
there was a want of method in them, which made a considerable part of his
work of little or no use, while the rest required very careful treatment,
in order to give results commensurate with their high intrinsic value.
MEASUREMENTS.
Distance.--To measure the Length of a Journey by Time.--The pace of a
caravan across average country is 2 1/2 statute, or 2 geographical, miles
per hour, as measured with compasses from point to point, and not
following the sinuosities of each day's course; but in making this
estimate, every minute lost in stoppages by the way is supposed to be
subtracted from the whole time spent on the road. A careful traveller
will be surprised at the accuracy of the geographical results, obtainable
by noting the time he has employed in actual travel. Experience shows
that 10 English miles per day, measured along the road--or, what is much
the same thing, 7 geographical miles, measured with a pair of compasses
from point to point--is, taking one day with another, and including all
stoppages of every kind, whatever be their cause,--very fast travelling
for a caravan. In estimating the probable duration of a journey in an
unknown country, or in arranging an outfit for an exploring expedition,
not more than half that speed should be reckoned upon. Indeed, it would
be creditable to an explorer to have conducted the same caravan for a
distance of 1000 geographical miles, across a rude country, in six
months. These data have, of course, no reference to a journey which may
be accomplished by a single great effort, nor to one where the
watering-places and pasturages are well known; but apply to an
exploration of considerable length, in which a traveller must feel his
way, and where he must use great caution not to exhaust his cattle, lest
some unexpected call for exertion should arise, which they might prove
unequal to meet. Persons who have never travelled--and very many of those
who have, from neglecting to analyse their own performances--entertain
very erroneous views on these matters.
Rate of Movement to measure.--a. When the length of pace etc., is known
before beginning, to observe.--A man or a horse walking at the rate of
one mile per hour, takes 10 paces in some ascertainable number of
seconds, dependent upon the length of his step. If the length of his step
be 30 inches, he will occupy 17 seconds in making 10 paces. Conversely,
if the same person counts his paces for 17 seconds, and finds that he has
taken 10 in that time, he will know that he is walking at the rate of
exactly 1 mile per hour. If he had taken 40 paces in the same period, he
would know that his rate had been 4 miles per hour; if 35 paces, that it
had been 3.5, or 3 1/2 miles per hour. Thus it will be easily
intelligible, that if a man knows the number of seconds appropriate to
the length of his pace, he can learn the rate at which he is walking, by
counting his paces during that number of seconds and by dividing the
number of his paces so obtained, by 10. In short the number of his paces
during the period in question, gives his rate per hour, in miles and
decimals of a mile, to one place of decimals. I am indebted to Mr.
Archibald Smith for this very ingenious notion, which I have worked into
the following Tables. In Table I., I give the appropriate number of
seconds corresponding to paces of various lengths. I find, however, that
the pace of neither man nor horse is constant in length during all rates
of walking; consequently, where precision is sought, it is better to use
this Table on a method of approximation. That is to say, the traveller
should find his approximate rate by using the number of seconds
appropriate to his estimated speed. Then, knowing the length of pace due
to that approximate rate, he will proceed afresh by adopting a revised
number of seconds, and will obtain a result much nearer to the truth than
the first. Table I. could of course be employed for finding the rate of a
carriage, when the circumference of one of its wheels was known; but it
is troublesome to make such a measurement. I therefore have calculated
Table II., in terms of the radius of the wheel. The formulae by which
the two Tables have been calculated are, m=l x 0.5682 for Table I., and
m=r x 3.570 for Table II., where m is the appropriate number of seconds;
l is the length of the pace, or circumference of the wheel; and r is the
radius of the wheel.
The Tables will be found on the next page.
[Tables I and II appear on p 34].
b. When the length of Pace is unknown till after observation.--In this
case, the following plan gives the rate of travel per hour, with the
smallest amount of arithmetic.
For statute miles per hour--Observe the number of paces (n) taken in 5.7
seconds: let i be the number of inches (to be subsequently determined at
leisure) in a single pace; then ni/100 is the rate per hour.
For geographical miles per hour--The number of seconds to be employed is
5. This formula is therefore very simple, and it is a useful one. (A
statute mile is 1760 yards, and a geographical mile is 2025 yards.)
For finding the rate in statute miles per hour in a carriage--Observe
the number of revolutions (n) made by the wheel in 18 seconds: let d be
the number of inches in the diameter of the wheel; then n d/200 is the
rate per hour.
The above method is convenient for measuring the rate at which an animal
gallops. After counting its paces it may be through a telescope, during
the prescribed number of seconds, you walk to the track, and measure the
length of its pace. If you have no measuring tape, stride in yards
alongside its track, to find the number of yards that are covered by 36
of its paces. This is, of course, identical with the number of inches in
one of its paces.
Convenient Equivalents.--The rate of 1 mile per hour, is the equivalent
to each of the rates in the following list:--
Yards. Feet. Inches.
29.333, or 88.000, or 1056.000, in one minute
or 0.488, or 1.466, or 17.600, in one second
Measurement of Length.--Actual measurement with the rudest makeshift, is
far preferable to an unassisted guess, especially to an unpractised eye.
Natural Units of Length.--A man should ascertain his height; height of
his eye above ground; ditto, when kneeling: his fathom; his cubit; his
average pace; the span, from ball of thumb to tip of one of his fingers;
the length of the foot; the width of two, three, or four fingers; and the
distance between his eyes. In all probability, some one of these is an
even and a useful number of feet or inches, which he will always be able
to recollect, and refer to as a unit of measurement. The distance between
the eyes is instantly determined, and, I believe, never varies, while
measurements of stature, and certainly those of girth of limb, become
very different when a man is exhausted by long travel and bad diet. It is
therefore particularly useful for measuring small objects. To find it,
hold a stick at arm's-length, at right angles to the line of sight; then,
looking past its end to a distant object, shut first one eye and then the
other, until you have satisfied yourself of the exact point on the stick
that covers the distant object as seen by the one eye, when the end of
the stick exactly covers the same object, as seen by the other eye. A
stone's throw is a good standard of reference for greater distances.
Cricketers estimate distance by the length between wickets. Pacing yards
should be practised. It is well to dot or burn with the lens of your
opera-glass a scale of inches on the gun-stock and pocket-knife.
Velocity of Sound.--Sound flies at 380 yards or about 1000 feet in a
second, speaking in round numbers: it is easy to measure rough distances
by the flash of a gun and its report; for even a storm of wind only makes
4 per cent. difference, one way or the other, in the velocity of sound.
Measurement of Angles.--Rude Measurements.--I find that a capital
substitute for a very rude sextant is afforded by the outstretched hand
and arm. The span between the middle finger and the thumb subtends an
angle of about 15 degrees, and that between the forefinger and the thumb
an angle of 11 1/4 degrees, or one point of the compass. Just as a person
may learn to walk yards accurately, so may he learn to span out these
angular distances accurately; and the horizon, however broken it may be,
is always before his eyes to check him. Thus, if he begins from a tree,
or even from a book on his shelves and spans all round until he comes to
the tree or book again, he should make twenty-four of the larger spans
and thirty-two of the lesser ones. These two angles of 15 degrees and 11
1/4 degrees are particularly important. The sun travels through 15
degrees in each hour; and therefore, by "spanning" along its course, as
estimated, from the place where it would stand at noon (aided in this by
the compass), the hour before or after noon, and, similarly after sunrise
or before sunset, can be instantly reckoned. Again, the angles 30
degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees, and 90 degrees, all of them simple
multiples of 15 degrees, are by far the most useful ones in taking rough
measurements of heights and distances, because of the simple relations
between the sides of right-angled triangles, one of whose other angles
are 30 degrees, 45 degrees, or 60 degrees; and also because 60 degrees is
the value of an angle of an equilateral triangle. As regards 11 1/4
degrees, or one point of the compass, it is perfectly out of the question
to trust to bearings taken by the unaided eye, or to steer a steady
course by simply watching a star or landmark, when this happens to be
much to the right or the left of it. Now, nothing is easier than to span
out the bearing from time to time.
Right-angles to lay out.--A triangle whose sides are as 3, 4, and 5, must
be a right-angled one, since 5 x 5 = 3 x 3 + 4 x 4; therefore we can find
a right-angle very simply by means of a measuring-tape. We take a length
of twelve feet, yards, fathoms, or whatever it may be, and peg its two
ends, side by side, to the ground. Peg No. 2 is driven in at the third
division, and peg No. 3 is held at the seventh division of the cord,
which is stretched out till it becomes taut; then the peg is driven in.
These three pegs will form the corners of a right-angled triangle; peg
No. 2 being situated at the right-angle.
Proximate Arcs.--
1 degree subtends, at a distance of 1 statute mile, 90 feet.
1' subtends, at a distance of 1 statute mile, 18 inches.
1' subtends at a distance of 100 yards, 1 inch.
1" of latitude on the earth's surface is 100 feet.
30' is subtended by the diameter of either the sun or the moon.
Angles measured by their Chords.--The number of degrees contained by any
given angle, may be ascertained without a protractor or other angular
instrument, by means of a Table of Chords. So, also, may any required
angle be protracted on paper, through the same simple means. In the first
instance, draw a circle on paper with its centre at the apex of the angle
and with a radius of 1000, next measure the distance between the points
where the circle is cut by the two lines that enclose the angle. Lastly
look for that distance (which is the chord of the angle) in the annexed
table, where the corresponding number of degrees will be found, where the
corresponding number of degrees will be found. If it be desired to
protract a given angle, the same operation is to be performed in a
converse sense. I need hardly mention that the chord of an angle is the
same thing as twice the sine of half that angle; but as tables of natural
sines are not now-a-days commonly to be met with, I have thought it well
worth while to give a Table of Chords. When a traveller, who is
unprovided with regular instruments, wishes to triangulate, or when
having taken some bearings but having no protractor, he wishes to lay
them down upon his map, this little table will prove of very great
service to him. (See "Measurement of distances to inaccessible places.")
[Table of Chords to Radius of 1000].
Triangulation.--Measurement of distance to an inaccessible place.--By
similar triangles.--To show how the breadth of a river may be measured
without instruments, without any table, and without crossing it, I have
taken the following useful problem from the French 'Manuel du Genie.'
Those usually given by English writers for the same purpose are,
strangely enough, unsatisfactory, for they require the measurement of an
angle. This plan requires pacing only. To measure A G, produce it for any
distance, as to D; from D, in any convenient direction, take any equal
distances, D C, c d; produce B C to b, making c B--C B; join d b, and
produce it to a, that is to say, to the point where A C produced
intersects it; then the triangles to the left of C, are similar to those
on the right of C, and therefore a b is equal to A B. The points D C,
etc., may be marked by bushes planted in the ground, or by men standing.
The disadvantages of this plan are its complexity, and the usual
difficulty of finding a sufficient space of level ground, for its
execution. The method given in the following paragraph is incomparably
more facile and generally applicable.
Triangulation by measurement of Chords.--Colonel Everest, the late
Surveyor-General of India, pointed out (Journ. Roy. Geograph. Soc. 1860,
p. 122) the advantage to travellers, unprovided with angular instruments,
of measure the chords of the angles they wish to determine. He showed
that a person who desired to make a rude measurement of the angle C A B,
in the figure (p. 40), has simply to pace for any convenient length from
A towards C, reaching, we will say, the point a' and then to pace an
equal distance from A towards B, reaching the point a ae. Then it remains
for him to pace the distance a' a" which is the chord of the angle A to
the radius A a'. Knowing this, he can ascertain the value of the angle C
A B by reference to a proper table. In the same way the angle C B A can
be ascertained. Lastly, by pacing the distance A B, to serve as a base,
all the necessary data will have been obtained for determining the lines
A C and B C. The problem can be worked out, either by calculation or by
protraction. I have made numerous measurements in this way, and find the
practical error to be within five per cent.
Table for rude triangulation by Chords.--It occurred to me that the plan
described in the foregoing paragraph might be exceedingly simplified by a
table, such as that which I annex in which different values of a' a" are
given for a radius of 10, and in which the calculations are made for a
base = 100. The units in which A a', A a", and B b', Bb", are to be
measured are intended to be paces, though, of course, any other units
would do. The units in which the base is measured may be feet, yards,
minutes, or hours' journey, or whatever else is convenient. Any multiple
or divisor of 100 may be used for the base, if the tabular number be
similarly multiplied. Therefore a traveller may ascertain the breadth of
a river, or that of a valley, or the distance of any object on either
side of his line of march, by taking not more than some sixty additional
paces, and by making a single reference to my table. Particular care must
be taken to walk in a straight line from A to B, by sighting some more
distant object in a line with B. It will otherwise surprise most people,
on looking back at their track, to see how curved it has been and how far
their b' B is from being in the right direction.
[Contains Table for Rough Triangulation without the usual instruments,
and without Calculation"].
Measurement of Time.--Sun Dial.--Plant a stake firmly in the ground in a
level open space, and get ready a piece of string, a tent-peg, and a bit
of stick a foot long. When the stars begin to appear, and before it is
dark, go to the stake, lie down on the ground, and plant the stick, so
adjusting it that its top and the point where the string is tied to the
stake shall be in a line with the Polar Star, or rather with the Pole
(see below); then get up, stretch the string so as just to touch the top
of the stick, and stake it down with the tent-peg. Kneel down again, to
see that all is right, and in the morning draw out the dial-lines; the
string being the gnomon. The true North Pole is distant about 1 1/2
degree, or three suns' (or moons') diameters from the Polar Star, and it
lies between the Polar Star and the pointers of the Great Bear, or, more
truly, between it and [Greek letter] Urs ae Majoris.
[Small drawing illustrating these directions in above text].
The one essential point of dial-making is to set the gnomon truly,
because it ensures that the shadows shall fall in the same direction at
the same hours all the year round. To ascertain where to mark the
hour-lines on the ground, or wall, on which the shadow of the gnomon
falls, the simplest plan is to use a watch, or whatever makeshift means
of reckoning time be at hand. Calculations are troublesome, unless the
plate is quite level, or vertical, and exactly facing south or north, or
else in the plane of the Equinox.
The figure represents the well-known equinoctial sun-dial. It can easily
be cast in lead. The spike points towards the elevated pole, and the rim
of the disc is divided into 24 equal parts for the hours.
Pendulum.--A Traveller, when the last of his watches breaks down, has no
need to be disheartened from going on with his longitudinal observations,
especially if he observes occulations and eclipses. The object of a watch
is to tell the number of seconds that elapse between the instant of
occulation, eclipse, etc., and the instant, a minute or two later, when
the sextant observation for time is made. All that a watch actually does
is to beat seconds, and to record the number of beats. Now, a string and
stone, swung as a pendulum, will beat time; and a native who is taught to
throw a pebble into a bag at each beat, will record it; and, for
operations that do not occupy much time, he will be as good as a watch.
The rate of the pendulum may be determined by taking two sets of
observations, with three or four minutes' interval between them; and, if
the distance from the point of suspension to the centre of the stone be
thirty-nine inches, and if the string be thin and the stone very heavy,
it will beat seconds very nearly indeed. The observations upon which the
longitude of the East African lakes depended, after Captain Speke's first
journey to them, were lunars, timed with a string and a stone, in default
of a watch.
Hour-glass.--Either dry sand or water may be used in an hour-glass; if
water be used, the aperture through which it runs must, of course, be
smaller.
CLIMBING AND MOUNTAINEERING.
Climbing.--Climbing trees.--Colonel Jackson, in his book, 'How to
Observe,' gives the following directions for climbing palms and other
trees that have very rough barks:--"Take a strip of linen, or two towels
or strong handkerchiefs tied together, and form a loop at each end, for
the feet to pass tightly into without going through; or, for want of such
material, make a rope of grass or straw in the same way. The length
should embrace a little more than half of the diameter of the trunk to be
climbed. Now, being at the foot of the tree, fix the feet well into the
loops, and opening the legs a little, embrace the tree as high up as you
can. Raise your legs, and pressing the cord against the tree with your
feet, stand, as it were, in your stirrups, and raise your body and arms
higher; hold fast again by the arms, open the legs, and raise them a
stage higher, and so on to the top. The descent is effected in the same
way, reversing, of course, the order of the movements. The ruggedness of
the bark, and the weight of the body pressing diagonally across the trunk
of the tree, prevent the rope from slipping. Anything, provided it be
strong enough, is better than a round rope, which does not hold so fast."
A loop or hoop embracing the body of the climber and the tree, is a
helpful addition. Large nails carried in a bag slung round the waist, to
be driven into the bare trunk of the tree, will facilitate its ascent.
Gimlets may be used for the same purpose. High walls can be climbed by
help of this description; a weight attached to one end of a rope, being
first thrown over the wall, and the climber assisting himself by holding
on to the other end. Trees of soft wood are climbed by cutting notches
two feet apart on alternate sides. Also by driving in bamboo pegs,
sloping alternately to left or to right; these pegs correspond to the
"rungs" of a ladder.
Ladders.--A notched pole or a knotted rope makes a ladder. We hear of
people who have tied sheets together to let themselves down high walls,
when making an escape. The best way of making a long rope from sheets, is
to cut them into strips of about six inches broad, and with these to
twist a two-stranded rope, or else to plait a three-stranded one.
Descending cliffs with ropes is an art which naturalists and others have
occasion to practise. It has been reduced to a system by the inhabitants
of some rocky coasts in the Northern seas, where innumerable sea-birds go
for the breeding season, and whose ledges and crevices are crammed with
nests full of large eggs, about the end of May and the beginning of June.
They are no despicable prize to a hungry native. I am indebted to a most
devoted rock-climber, the late Mr. Woolley, for the following facts. It
appears that the whole population are rock-climbers, in the following
places:--St. Kilda, in the Hebrides; Foula Island, in Shetland; the Faroe
Islands generally; and in the Westmarver Islands off Iceland. Flamborough
Head used to be a famous place for this accomplishment, but the birds
have become far less numerous; they have been destroyed very wantonly
with shot.
In descending a cliff, two ropes are used; one a supply well-made,
many-stranded, inch rope (see "Ropes"), to which the climber is attached,
and by which he is let down; the other is a much thinner cord, left to
dangle over the cliff, and made fast to some stone or stake above. The
use of the second rope is for the climber to haul upon, when he wishes to
be pulled up. By resting a large part of his weight upon it, he makes the
task of pulling him up much more easy. He can also convey signals by
jerking it. A usual rock-climbing arrangement is shown in the sketch. One
man with a post behind him, as in fig. 1, or two men, as in fig. 2 are
entrusted with the letting down of a comrade to the depth of 100 or even
150 feet. They pass the rope either under their thighs or along their
sides, as shown in the figures. The climber is attached to the rope, as
shown in fig. 2. The band on which he sits is of worsted. A beginner
ought to be attached far more securely to the rope.
[Fig 1 and Fig 2 appear on p 45].
(I have tried several plans, and find that which is shown in Fig. 1 to be
thoroughly comfortable and secure. A stick forms the seat' at either end
of it is a short stirrup; garters secure the stirrup leathers to the
knees; there is a belt under the arms.)
It is convenient, but not necessary, to have a well-greased leather
sheath, a tube of eighteen inches in length, through which the rope runs,
as shown in both figures. It lies over the edges of the cliff, and the
friction of the rock keeps it steadily in its place.
It is nervous work going over the edge of a cliff for the first time;
however, the sensation does not include giddiness. Once in the air, and
when confidence is acquired, the occupation is very exhilarating. The
power of locomotion is marvellous: a slight push with the foot, or a
thrust with a stick, will swing the climber twenty feet to a side. Few
rocks are so precipitous but that a climber can generally make some use
of his hands and feet; enough to cling to the rock when he wishes, and to
clamber about its face. The wind is seldom a gale above, but the air will
be comparatively quiet upon the face; and therefore there is no danger of
a chance gush dashing the climber against the rocks. A short stick is
useful, but not necessary. There are three cautions to be borne in mind.
1. As you go down, test every stone carefully. If the movement of the
rope displaces any one of them, after you have been let down below it, it
is nearly sure to fall upon your head, because you will be vertically
beneath it. Some climbers use a kind of helmet as a shield against these
very dangerous accidents. 2. Take care that the rope does not become
jammed in a cleft, or you will be helplessly suspended in mid-air. Keep
the rope pretty tight when you are clambering about the ledges: else, if
you slip, the jerk may break the rope, or cause an overpowering strain
upon the men who are holding it above.
Turf and solid rock are much the best substances for the rope to run
over. In the Faroes, they tar the ropes excessively; they are absolutely
polished with tar. Good ropes are highly valued. In St. Kilda, leather
ropes are used: they last a lifetime, and are a dowry for a daughter. A
new rope spins terribly.
Leaping Poles.--In France they practise a way of crossing a deep brook by
the help of a rope passed round an overhanging branch of a tree growing
by its side. They take a run and swing themselves across, pendulum
fashion. It is the principle of the leaping-pole, reversed.
The art of climbing difficult places.--Always face difficult places; if
you slip, let your first effort be to turn upon your stomach, for in
every other position you are helpless. A mountaineer, when he meets with
a formidable obstacle, does not hold on the rock by means of his feet and
his hands only, but he clings to it like a caterpillar, with every part
of his body that can come simultaneously into contact with its roughened
surface.
Snow Mountains.--Precautions.--The real dangers of the high Alps may be
reduced to three:--1. Yielding of snow-bridges over crevices. 2. Slipping
on slopes of ice. 3. The fall of ice, or rocks, from above. Absolute
security from the first is obtainable by tying the party together at
intervals to a rope. If there be only two in company, they should be tied
together at eight or ten paces apart. Against the second danger, the rope
is usually effective, though frightful accidents have occurred by the
fall of one man, dragging along with him the whole chain of his
companions. Against the third danger there is no resource but
circumspection. Ice falls chiefly in the heat of the day; it is from
limestone cliffs that the falling rocks are nearly always detached. When
climbing ice of the most moderate slope, nailed boots are an absolute
necessity; and for steep slopes of ice, the ice-axe (described below) is
equally essential.
Alpine Outfit consists of ropes, ice-axe or alpenstock (there must be at
least one ice-axe in the party), nailed boots, coloured spectacles, veil
or else a linen mask, muffettees, and gaiters.
I give the following extracts from the Report of a Committee appointed by
the Alpine Club in 1864, on Ropes, Axes, and Alpenstocks:--
Ropes.--We have endeavoured to ascertain what ropes will best stand the
sharp jerk which would be caused by a man falling suddenly into a
crevasse, or down an ice-slope: and on this subject we lay before the
Club the result of nearly a hundred experiments, made with various kinds
of rope purchased of the best London makers. We considered that the least
weight with which it was practically useful to test ropes, was twelve
stone, as representing the average weight of a light man with his whole
Alpine equipment. In the preliminary experiments, therefore, all ropes
were rejected which did not support the strain produced by twelve stone
falling five feet. Under this trial, all those plaited ropes which are
generally supposed to be so strong, and many most carefully-made twisted
ropes, gave way in such a manner as was very startling to some of our
number, who had been in the habit of using these treacherous cords with
perfect and most unfounded confidence. Only four ropes passed
successfully through this trial; these were all made by Messrs.
Buckingham and Sons, of 33, Broad-street, Bloomsbury, and can be procured
only of them. We confined our further experiments to these ropes, one of
which failed under severer tests, while the remaining three, made
respectively of Manilla hemp, Italian hemp, and flax, proved so nearly
equal in strength that it may fairly be doubted which is on the whole to
be preferred. Each of these three ropes will bear twelve stone falling
ten feet, and fourteen stone falling eight feet; and it may be useful to
say that the strain upon a rope loaded with a weight of fourteen stone,
and suddenly checked after a fall of eight feet, is nearly equal to that
which is caused by a dead weight of two tons. None of these ropes,
however, will bear a weight of fourteen stone falling ten feet; and the
result of our experiments is, that no rope can be made, whether of hemp,
flax, or silk, which is strong enough to bear that strain, and yet light
enough to be portable. We believe that these ropes, which weigh about
three-quarters of an ounce to the foot, are the heaviest which can be
conveniently carried about in the Alps. We append a statement of the
respective merits of the three kinds, all of which are now made by
Messrs. Buckingham, expressly for the Club, and marked by a red worsted
thread twisted in the strands:--
No. 1. MANILLA HEMP. Weight of 20 yards, 48 oz. Advantages--Is softer and
more pliable than 2. Is more elastic than 2 and 3. When wet, is far more
pleasant to handle than 2 and 3. Disadvantages--Has a tendency to wear
and fray at a knot.
No. 2. ITALIAN HEMP. Weight of 20 yards, 43 oz. Advantages--Is less bulky
than 1 and 3. Is harder, and will probably wear best, being least likely
to cut against rocks. Disadvantages--Is much more still and difficult to
untie than 1 and 3. When wet, is very disagreeable to handle, and is apt
to kink.
No. 3. FLAX. Weight of 20 yards, 44 oz. Advantages--When dry, is softer,
more pliable, and easier to handle than 1 and 2, and will probably wear
better than 1. Disadvantages--When wet, becomes decidedly somewhat
weaker, and is nearly as disagreeable to handle as 2.
Knots.--There can be no doubt that every knot in a rope weakens its power
of resisting a sudden jerking strain. How great a loss of strength
results from a knot we cannot undertake to estimate, but that the loss is
a very serious one the following statement will show: these ropes which
we report will resist the strain of fourteen stone falling eight feet,
will not resist it if there is a knot in any one of them; or even if the
knots used in attaching them to the point of support, or to the weights,
be roughly or carelessly made. The rope in these cases breaks at the
knot, for two reasons; partly because of the folds, as they cross in the
knot, are strained suddenly across each other, and one of them is cut
through; and partly because the rope is so sharply bent that the outer
side of each fold in the knot is much more stretched than the inner side,
so that the strain comes almost entirely upon one side only of each fold.
For the first reason, we found it necessary to put a pad of some kind
inside the knot--leather, linen, or a little tow or waste rope will do.
For the second reason we preferred knots in which the folds are least
sharply bent round each other; that is, in which the curves are large. We
therefore conclude that--1st. No knot, which is not absolutely necessary,
ought to be allowed to remain on the rope: 2nd. The tighter and harder a
knot becomes, the worse it is: 3rd. The more loose and open a knot is
made, the better it is:--and we append diagrams of those knots which we
found by experiment weaken the rope least. For Alpine ropes, only three
sorts of knots are ever required, and we suggest one of each kind:--No. 1
is for the purpose of joining two ends. No. 2 is for the purpose of
making a loop at one end. No. 3 is for the purpose of making a loop in
the middle when the ends are fastened. No. 4 is a knot, of which we give
a diagram in order that no one may imitate it. It is one of those which
most weaken the rope. The only one which seemed to be equally injurious
is the common single knot, of which no diagram is necessary. As the topes
which we have recommended are very liable to become untwisted, unless the
loose ends are secured, we advise travellers, in order to avoid knots, to
have the ends of every piece of rope bound with waxed twine. It should
also be known that it is very unsafe to join two pieces of rope by
looping one end through the other, so that when the jerk comes, they will
be strained across each other as two links of a chain are strained across
each other. Unless a pad of some kind divides the loops, one will cut the
other through.
[Four diagrams of knots on this page].
Axes.--The axes made in England for the purpose of being taken out to
Switzerland, may be divided into two classes, namely: travellers' axes,
intended to be used for chipping a few occasional steps, for enlarging
and clearing out those imperfectly made, and for holding on to a
snow-slope,--and guides' axes, which are the heavier implements required
for making long staircases in hard blue ice. We have had three models
prepared, of which diagrams are appended; the first two represent the
lighter axe, or what we have termed the travellers' axe; and the third,
the heavier instrument required for guides' work. Diagram No. 1
represents a light axe or pick, of a kind somewhat similar to that
recommended by Mr. Stephen, in a paper published a short time ago in the
'Journal.' It has, in the first place, the great advantage of lightness
and handiness, while its single blade, to some extent, combines the
step-cutting qualities possessed by the two cutters of the ordinary
double-headed axe, though the latter instrument is on the whole decidedly
superior. The small hammer-headed axe, though the latter instrument is on
the whole decidedly superior. The small hammer-head at the back is added
in order to balance the pick, and in some degree to improve the hold when
the axe-head comes to be used as a crutch handle. This form, it should be
understood, we recommend on account of its lightness and of its
convenient shape. Diagram No. 2 represents a travellers' axe, slightly
heavier than the first; and as this is the shape which appears to us the
best adapted for mountain work of all kinds, we desire shortly to state
our reasons for recommending it to members of the Club.
[Fig 1 and Fig 2, shapes of axes, are on this page.].
In the first place it is absolutely necessary that one of the cutters
should be made in the form of a pick, as this is by far the best
instrument for hacking into hard ice, and is also extremely convenient
for holding on to a snow-slope, or hooking into crannies, or on to ledges
of rock.
For the other cutter we recommend an adze-shaped blade, and we are
convinced that this is the form which will be found most generally
useful, as being best suited for all the varieties of step-cutting. The
hatchet-shaped blade used by the Chamouni guides is no doubt a better
implement for making a staircase diagonally up a slope, but on the other
hand it is exceedingly difficult to cut steps downwards with a blade set
on in this manner; and as mountaineers rarely come down the way by which
they went up, if they can help it, it is obvious that this objection to
the Chamouni form of axe is conclusive.
We recommend that the edge of the blade should be angular instead of
circular, although the latter shape is more common, because it is clear
that the angular edge cuts into frozen snow more quickly and easily.
The curve, which is the same in all the axes, approaches to coincidence
with the curve described by the axe in making the stroke. A curve is, in
our opinion, desirable, in order to bring the point more nearly opposite
the centre of percussion, and to make the head more useful for holding on
to rocks or a slope.
The axe shown in diagram No. 2, though slightly heavier than No. 1, is
not of sufficient weight or strength for cutting a series of steps in
hard ice. To those gentlemen, therefore, who do not object to carrying
weight, but who desire to have an axe fit for any kind of work, we
recommend No. 3. As this is exactly similar in shape to No. 2, differing
from it only in size, we have not thought it necessary to give a separate
diagram of No. 3.
As to the mode of fastening, which is the same in all three axes, we
should have felt some diffidence in giving an opinion had we not been
fortunate enough to obtain the advice of an experienced metal-worker, by
whom we were strongly recommended to adopt the fastening shown in the
diagrams, as being the method generally considered best in the trade for
attaching the heads of hatchets, or large hammers likely to be subjected
to very violent strains. It will be seen that the axe-head and fastening
are forged in one solid piece, the fastening consisting of two strong
braces or straps of steel, which are pressed into the wood about
one-eighth of an inch, and are secured by two rivets, passed through the
wood and clenched on each side. The braces are put at the side, instead
of in front of and behind the axe, because by this means, the strain
which falls on the axe acts against the whole breadth of the steel
fastenings, and not against their thickness merely.
We believe that this is the firmest method of fastening which can be
adopted, and that so long as the wood is sound, it is scarcely possible
for the head of the axe to get loose or to come off; and it has the
further advantage of strengthening the wood instead of weakening it, and
of distributing the strain produced by step-cutting over a large bearing.
It should be added that these axe-heads and fastenings ought to be made
entirely of steel.
The dimensions of the axe-heads are as follow: --
No. 1. -- Length of blade measured from the wood.. 4 1/2 inches.
Breadth of blade at widest part..........1 1/2 "
Weight, including the braces............13 1/2 oz.
No. 2. -- Length of blade measured from the wood.. 3 1/2 inches.
Length of pick.......................... 4 1/2 "
Breadth of blade at widest part......... 1 3/4 "
Breadth of pick......................... 0 1/2 "
Weight, including the braces............15 1/2 oz.
No. 3. -- Length of blade measured from the wood.. 4 inches.
Length of pick.......................... 5 "
Breadth of blade at widest part......... 2 1/4 "
Breadth of pick......................... 0 5/8 "
Weight, including the brades............21 1/4 oz.
We much desired to recommend to the Club some means by which the axe-head
might be made moveable, so as to be capable of being put on and taken off
the handle quickly and easily. We regret to say, however, that we were
unable to discover any plan by which this can be effectually done. We
examined very carefully the numerous and formidable weapons which have
been sent in by members for exhibition, most of which had elaborate
contrivances for fastening on the axe-head. These were all, however,
liable to very serious objections. Some were evidently insecure; with
others it was necessary that the axe-head should be surmounted by a huge
knob, which would prove a most serious impediment in step-cutting; while
in the best and firmest which we found, the axe-head was attached to the
pole by means of nuts and screws projecting at the side or over the top
of the axe. This latter method of fastening seems to us awkward and
possibly dangerous, as the nuts, from their position, are very likely to
become loose or to get broken off, and cannot, except when dangerously
loose, be fastened or unfastened without a key or wrench--a troublesome
article, certain to be lost on the first expedition.
The Handle of the Axe should, we think, be made of ash. We recommend this
wood in preference to deal, which is lighter and nearly as strong,
because in choosing a piece of ash it is easier to select with certainty
thoroughly sound and well-seasoned wood; and in preference to hickory and
lance-wood, which are stronger, because these woods are extremely heavy.
The handle should, we believe, be of a very slightly oval form, as it is
then more convenient to the grasp than if round. As to the thickness of
the wood, we are satisfied it oug |
