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MACAU an administrative region study Federal Research Division Library of Congress Compiled by Robert L. Worden Unlike other titles in the Country Studies/Area Handbook Series, which are available in both printed and electronic formats, this study was "born digital" and is available only in electronic form. Information as of August 7, 2000 ************* HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Evidence of Chinese material cultural dating back 4,000 to 6,000 years has been discovered on the Macau peninsula and dating back 5,000 years on Coloane Island. Historical records show that what was later known as Macao was part of Fanyu County, Nanhai District, Guangdong Province, under the Qin empire (221-206 B.C.). During the Jin Dynasty (A.D. 265-420), the area was part of Dongguan County and later alternated under the control of Nanhai and Dongguan. In 1152 (during the Song Dynasty, A.D. 960-1279), it was identified as administratively part of the new Xiangshan County. The oldest continuous settlement in Macau is the village of Wangxia (Mongha), a name given to the northern part of the peninsula; the village dates from the Yuan Dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368). Wangxia has long been the center of Chinese life in Macau and the site of what may be the region's oldest temple, a shrine devoted to the Buddhist Guanyin (Goddess of Mercy). During the Ming Dynasty (A.D. 1368-1643), fishermen migrated to Macau from various parts of Guangdong and Fujian provinces and built the A-Ma Temple in which they prayed for safety on the sea. Since at least the fifth century A.D., merchant ships traveling between Southeast Asia and Guangzhou used Haojingao as a way stop for refuge, fresh water, and food. Portuguese navigators first explored trade routes between Portugal and Asia in the early sixteenth century. Having established themselves at Goa in 1510 and Malacca in 1511, the first Portuguese arrived on the China coast in 1513 aboard a hired junk sailing from Malacca. They landed on Lintin Island in the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary and erected a stone marker claiming the island for the king of Portugal. When Portuguese fleets arrived in the vicinity of Haojingao in 1517 and 1518, Chinese officials expressed displeasure over violations of China's sovereignty. Portuguese adventurers were forcibly expelled from along the coast of Guangdong in 1521. Following a ship wreck in 1536, Portuguese traders were allowed to moor at Haojingao, however. Most historians note the date of the permanent presence of the Portuguese in Macau as 1553, the year they started establishing on-shore trading depots there. Although Portuguese attempts to settle other islands along the southern coast of China had failed, Macau prospered. The Portuguese set up bases of operations there for trade with China, especially Guangzhou, and for trade with Japan. Both Portuguese and Chinese merchants flocked to Macau, and it quickly became an important node in the development of Portugal's trade with India, southern China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Lisbon obtained a leasehold for Macau in return for tribute paid to Beijing in 1557, and during that same year, established a walled village there. Ground rent payments began in 1573. China retained sovereignty and Chinese residents were subject to Chinese law, but the territory was under Portuguese administration. In 1582 a land lease was signed, and annual rent was paid to Xiangshan County. In 1586 Macau became a self-governing city. In 1605 Dutch attacks led the Portuguese to build a city wall without China's permission. China officially established Macau as a foreign-trade port in 1685. During the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, Macau served as an important center for Portuguese trade with China (primarily with Guangzhou), Japan, the Philippines, mainland and island Southeast Asia, Goa, and Mexico during the Ming (1368-1643) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. The decline of Lisbon's world trade system in the mid-seventeenth century ended Macao's role as a major trade entrepôt. The development of Hong Kong by the British and the opening of treaty ports along the China coast after 1842 further overshadowed the commercial importance of Macau. Until April 20, 1844, Macau was under the jurisdiction of Portugal's Indian colonies, the so-called "Estado português da India" (Portuguese State of India), but after this date, it, along with East Timor, was accorded recognition by Lisbon (but not by Beijing) as an overseas province of Portugal. The Treaty of Peace, Amity, and Commerce between China and the United States (also known as the Treaty of Wangxia) was signed on July 3, 1844, in a temple in Macau. The temple was used by a Chinese judicial administrator, who also oversaw matters concerning foreigners, and was located in the village of Wangxia. In 1845 Portugal declared Macau a free port, expelled Chinese officials and soldiers, and thereafter levied taxes on Chinese residents. Portugal gained control of the island of Wanzhai, to the north of Macau and which now is under the jurisdiction of Zhuhai, in 1849 but relinquished it in 1887. Control over Taipa (Dangzai in Chinese) and Coloane (Luhuan), two islands south of Macau, was obtained between 1851 and 1864. The Treaty of Tianjin (signed August 13, 1862) recognized Macau as a Portuguese colony, but because China never ratified the treaty, Macau was never officially ceded to Portugal. Macau and East Timor were again combined as an overseas province of Portugal under control of Goa in 1883. The Protocol Respecting the Relations Between the Two Countries (signed in Lisbon March 26, 1887) confirmed "perpetual occupation and government" of Macau by Portugal (with Portugal's promise "never to alienate Macau and dependencies without agreement with China"). Taipa and Coloane were also ceded to Portugal, but the border with the mainland was not delimited. The Treaty of Commerce and Friendship (August 28, 1888) recognized Portuguese sovereignty over Macau but was never ratified by China. Ilha Verde (Qingzhou in Chinese) was incorporated into Macau's territory in 1890, and, once a kilometer offshore, by 1923 it had been absorbed into peninsular Macau through land reclamation. Portugal designated Macau a separate overseas province in 1955. In 1974 the new Portuguese government granted independence to all overseas colonies and recognized Macau as part of China's territory. On February 8, 1979, China and Portugal exchanged diplomatic recognition, and Beijing acknowledged Macau as "Chinese territory under Portuguese administration." A joint communiqué signed May 20, 1986, called for negotiations on the Macau question, and four rounds of talks followed between June 30, 1986 and March 26, 1987. The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau was signed in Beijing on April 13, 1987, setting the stage for the return of Macau to full Chinese sovereignty as a special administrative region on December 20, 1999. The Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, was adopted by the National People's Congress (NPC) on March 31, 1993, as the constitutional law for Macau taking effect on December 20, 1999. ************** GEOGRAPHY Location, Size, Border, and Coastline: Macau is located in the southern part of China's Guangdong Province, on the tip of the peninsula formed by the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary on the east and the Xijiang (West River) on the west. Macau is situated sixty kilometers west of Hong Kong and 145 kilometers southwest of Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province. It is immediately adjacent to the Zhuhai Special Economic Zone. The region comprises the Macau Peninsula and the islands of Taipa and Coloane. Macau was once an island but gradually a connecting sandbar turned into a narrow isthmus. Land reclamation in the seventeenth century made Macau into a peninsula, and a barrier gate was built to mark the separation between the peninsula and the mainland. Pre-colonial records show that Macau totaled only 2.78 square kilometers but began to increase as a result of Portuguese settlement. Land growth has accelerated since the last quarter of the twentieth century, from 15 square kilometers in 1972 to 16.1 square kilometers in 1983 to 21.3 square kilometers in 1994. Macau's size has gradually increased as result of continued land reclamation, especially on Taipa and Coloane. In 2000, the total land area was approximately 23.6 square kilometers. There is a 0.34-kilometer-long border between Macau and mainland China and a forty-kilometer-long coastline. Topography: Macau has generally flat terrain resulting from extensive land reclamation, but numerous steep hills mark the original natural land mass. The modern high-rise skyline of Macau obscures much of the hilly landscape. Macau's highest point is at Coloane Alto (174 meters above sea level). The Macau skyline both defines and obscures its topography. Courtesy Robert L. Worden Climate: The climate is subtropical and is hot and humid, with an average year-round temperature of 25°C and temperatures exceeding 30°C from June to September. Temperatures rarely fall below 14°C (the average for January and February). There is about 2,030 millimeters of rainfall annually. Macau is exposed to tropical storms originating from the southern Pacific Ocean during the summer. Major destruction occurred in September 1874, when a devastating typhoon hit Macau and high seas swept across the low-lying area of the peninsula. Natural Resources: Negligible. In the past, large amounts of granite were extracted from Macau's hills for use as building material. Land Use: No arable land, pastures, forest, or woodland. Because of this deficiency, Macau's people traditionally have looked to the sea for their livelihood. Environmental Factors: Dense urban environment. ************ SOCIETY Population: Estimated 438,100 (official Macau government provisional data as of December 31, 1999); other estimates range from 414,000 to more than 520,000. Population density 18,564 persons per square kilometer (based on the 1999 figure). Macau experienced significant population growth in the twentieth century. In 1910 the population was tabulated at 74,866, had risen to 187,772 by 1950, and approached the 500,000 level at the turn of the twenty-first century. Age Structure and Aging: 24.9 percent of population are fourteen years of age or less, 67.5 percent aged fifteen to sixty-four years, and 7.6 percent are sixty-five years and older (1998 estimates). Birth Rate: 12.76 per 1,000 (1998 estimate). Death Rate: 3.48 per 1,000 (1998 estimate). Infant Mortality Rate: 4.4 per 1,000 live births (1998 estimate). Life Expectancy at Birth: 81.6 years in 1998: males 78.66 years, females 84.68 years (1998 estimate). Total Fertility Rate: 1.27 children born per woman. Male-Female Ratio: 48.1 percent male and 51.9 percent female. Annual Population Growth Rate: The Macau government officially reports a nearly 4 percent growth rate. However, foreign statistics indicate a lower rate, at 1.91 percent, reflecting the discrepancies between official and unofficial population estimates. Migration: The net migration rate is 9.78 migrants per 1,000 (1998 estimate). Population growth is stimulated by the arrival daily of about 20,000 people via the Macau-Hong Kong ferry and almost 50,000 via the Macau-Zhuhai border. The Ministry of Public Security of China announced in January 2000, that Guangdong residents separated from their spouses in Macau before December 31, 1987 may reside in Macau. For residents from other provinces, the cutoff date is December 31, 1994. Ethnic Groups and Origins: Han Chinese comprise 95 percent, Portuguese 3 percent, and other 2 percent. Of these, 44.4 percent are born in Macau, 46.9 percent in China, and 8.7 percent elsewhere. Only 41.5 percent have lived in Macau since birth; 39.9 percent have lived there ten or more years and 27.7 percent have lived there less than ten years. Although while the term Macanese is used to describe citizens of Macau, the word also is taken to have various meanings, and has been applied to biracial Chinese-Portuguese individuals, persons of pure Portuguese descent, and Chinese or mixed Chinese-Portugese individuals who have been baptized and taken Portuguese names. Language: 96.1 percent speak Chinese, 1.8 percent speak Portuguese, 2.1 other languages. Predominantly Yue (Cantonese) dialect is spoken; some, but very few, residents are bilingual in Portuguese and Yue. Putonghua (standard spoken Chinese based on Beijing dialect) is becoming increasingly widespread among those in public and commercial service. Both Portuguese and Chinese are official languages. English is used throughout Macau's tourism sector. Education: There is compulsory five-year primary education and free education for up to nine years. For 1998-99, the government reported 107,419 students of all ages as follows: 17,354 kindergarten students; 48,269 primary students; 28,543 secondary students; 3,239 technical and vocational secondary students; 10,014 higher education students, including teaching and nursing trainees; 47,504 persons in adult education; and 494 special education students. Ninety percent of education is offered by private-sector institutions. In 2000, six kindergartens (three levels), eight primary schools (six grades), two secondary schools (six grades), and nine postsecondary schools were officially recognized by the government. The Universidade de Macau (Aomen Daxue) was established in 1991 as the successor to Universidade da Ásia Oriental (Dongya Daxue), which had been established in 1981 from three smaller colleges. Other key institutions include Macau Polytechnic; the Macau Armed Forces College, which trains police, customs and excise and maritime police, and fire service officers; the Institute of Tourism Education, which focuses on training for tourism industry; the International Institute of Software Technology of University of the United Nations; and the Institute of European Studies. The Macau government also provides financial support to private institutions of higher education, including the International Open University of Asia (Macau) and several Portuguese-language Catholic colleges. Curricula are in Portuguese, Chinese, and English. Literacy: 90 percent of population age fifteen and over can read; 93 percent of males and 86 percent of females have achieved basic literacy. Religion: Buddhist represent 45 percent, Roman Catholic 7 percent, Protestant 1 percent, other (Hindus, Muslims, and others) 1.2 percent, and no religion 45.8 percent. Large Roman Catholic churches are major cultural fixtures in the traditional European areas, and numerous Buddhist and Daoist shrines and temples are found throughout predominantly Chinese neighborhoods. Christian and Chinese religious sites can be found in close proximity throughout many parts of Macau. Health Care: In 1995, there were 880 beds in thirty-four hospitals and clinics served by some 300 physicians and 680 nurses. There was one physician and one nurse per 488 inhabitants in 1999. Per capita public health spending is about 1,500 Macau patacas (MPtc, also shown as M$ or MOP, using a two-digit abbreviation for Macau, MO) per annum. In order of precedence, circulatory diseases, neoplasms, and respiratory diseases are the leading causes of death. *************** ECONOMY Gross Domestic Product (GDP): US$6.1 billion (MPtc49.2 billion) preliminary official estimate for 1999, when GDP growth was estimated at -2.9 percent. For 1999 GDP per capita was estimated at US$14,145. Per capita GPD has been steadily decreasing since 1997, when it reached a high of US$16,729. Industry: Major activities are textile and garment manufacturing, accounting for 83.8 percent of principal domestic exports in 1999. Other major sectors are footwear, electronics, and toys. Mainland China provides most of Macau's raw materials. Agriculture and Fishing: Traditionally, fishing and harvesting oysters has been the major form of food production. However, meat production in 1996 was 1,246 metric tons of buffaloes and 10,938 metric tons of pigs slaughtered; declining catches led to the suspension of fishing in July 1996. In the previous two years, only 1,900 metric tons (1994) and 1,600 metric tons (1995) of seafood were caught. Decorated fishing boats were part of the celebration of the reversion of Macau to China on December 20, 1999. Courtesy Catherina Pang, Hong Kong Collection, Library of Congress Labor Force: In 1999, Macau's labor force totaled around 217,000. Most (27.9 percent) workers were in public administration and personal and social services; 26.2 percent in wholesale, retail, restaurant, and hotel trades; 22 percent in manufacturing, 8.1 in construction and public works; 7.8 percent in financial activities, real estate, leasing, and commercial services; 7.4 percent in transportation and communications; and 0.6 percent in other services. Nearly 13 percent of Macau's labor force is made up of mainland construction workers and Filipino shop and restaurant employees; a presence that was the cause of demonstrations in May and July 2000. Unemployment Rate: The official average unemployment rate was 4.3 for 1996, 3.2 for 1997, and 4.6 for 1998; unemployment jumped to 6.5 in 1999. For the January-June 2000 period, the rate reached 7 percent and, unofficially, may have been higher. Trade: In 1999, Macau's free-market economy produced total exports of US$2.2 billion (MPtc 17.6 billion) and consisted mainly of textiles and garments, toys, electronic goods, and footwear. Total imports for the same period reached US$2 billion (MPtc 16.3 billion), and consisted mostly of raw materials and semi-manufactures, consumer goods, capital goods, and mineral fuels and oils. Total reexports were about US$317 million (MPtc 2.5 billion). In 1999 positive growth rates were seen in all three categories. Principal import trade partners in 1999 were China (35.7 percent), Hong Kong (18.1 percent), the European Union (12.9 percent), Taiwan (9.5 percent), Japan (6.7 percent), the United States (5.1 percent), and other countries (12 percent). Exports went to the United States (47 percent), the European Union (30.2 percent), China (9.2), Hong Kong (6.8 percent), and other countries (6.8 percent). In the second half of the twentieth century, Macau's economy was diversified with the development of light industry, the influx of migrants from mainland China to serve as a labor force, and increased tourism. Portugal's efforts to develop economic and cultural links between Macau and Brazil and Portuguese holdings in Africa, however, were not successful. Economic ties to the European Union and Taiwan are considered important aspects of Macau's economic role as part of the People's Republic of China. Direct access to the neighboring Zhuhai Special Economic Zone facilitates trade with mainland China. As a special administrative region, Macau functions as a free port and as a separate customs territory. Financial Institutions: Two banks issue currency: the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and the Bank of China (starting in October 1995). There are twenty other licensed banks, sixteen of which are foreign. Macau has five of the top 500 commercial banks in Asia, including Banco Tai Fung (Tai Fung Bank) and Banco Seng Heng (Seng Heng Bank). Currency/Exchange Rate: US$1 = Macau patacas (MPtc, M$, or MOP) 7.9907 (August 7, 2000). One pataca divides into 100 avos. Coins are issued in 10, 20, and 50 avos and 1 and 5 patacas; notes are in 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 pataca denominations. Hong Kong currency is freely used and represents about two-thirds of the currency in circulation. The new banknotes were issued by the Bank of China and the Banco Nacional Ultramarino on December 20, 1999, and are fully convertible to foreign currencies. Tourism: Major source of foreign exchange (US$1.9 billion in 1993); employed estimated 30 percent of labor force and contributed estimated 45 percent GNP in 1995. According to official figures for 1999, some 7.4 million persons visited Macau. Nearly 57 percent came from Hong Kong, 22 percent from mainland China, 13 percent from Taiwan, and 8 percent from other sources. Most made short, overnight visits. Overall, tourism declined in the 1990s but increased in 1999. Gambling: Gambling has been licensed since 1850 and has always been an important source of revenue for the government. In the early 1960s, gambling provided 50 percent of Macau's official revenue. Starting in 1962, the gambling industry has been operated under a government-issued monopoly license by the Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau (Macau Tourism and Entertainment Corporation). Macau had nine casinos in the 1990s; gambling reportedly represented 20 to 25 percent of Macau's GDP. Direct taxes on gambling were 44.5 percent of total government revenue in 1998, up from 40.1 percent in 1997. In 1999, however, there was a 9.1 percent decrease in this sector. Internet gaming, with its worldwide access, was scheduled to be initiated in Macau in Summer 2000. The monopoly license of the Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau expires in 2001. Organized crime is reported to be heavily involved in gambling in Macau (see Organized Crime, q.v.). Fiscal Year: January 1-December 31. TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS Roads and Bridges: Macau has 321 kilometers of public roads. Two highway bridges link Macau to Zhuhai, the most recent of which, the 1.3-kilometer-long, six-lane Lotus Bridge, opened in December 1999. Two bridges link peninsular Macau with Taipa. The first, a 2.6 kilometer-long highway bridge, was completed in 1974; the second, completed in 1994 to serve the new Macau International Airport, is 4.4 kilometers long and four lanes wide. An eight-kilometer-long dual-lane highway links the airport and the Zhuhai border crossing. Taipa is connected to Coloane with a 2.2-kilometer-long causeway. The 38-kilometer-long connector, to be called the Lingdingyang Bridge, has been proposed to link Macau and Zhuhai with Shenzhen and Hong Kong. Buses and numerous taxicabs provide public transportation. Motorists in 1999 used some 55,114 automobiles and trucks and 58,116 motorcycles. Sea Transportation: Jetfoils, turbo catamarans, and catamarans operate between the Macau Maritime Terminal and Hong Kong (Central or Kowloon, depending on type of craft). The trip between Macau and Hong Kong takes between 55 and 70 minutes depending on the type of craft. About 150 trips per day are made between Macau and Hong Kong. The Macau Maritime Terminal is located on the east shore of the Macau Peninsula (Macau outer harbor). The Macau Container Port, located near the Macau International Airport, was opened in 1991. Vessels leaving the port provide multiple daily round trips to Hong Kong and regular container ship service to Taiwan, Singapore, and to Chinese ports within the Zhujiang estuary. Macau's shallow harbor and channels, however, limit the size and number of ships that can enter the port. Air Transportation: The Macau International Airport opened in December 1995 on reclaimed land on the east side of Taipa. It handles commercial and general aviation and accommodates all major aircraft up to Boeing 747-400s. There are two offshore runways (3,285 meters and 3,360 meters) and one taxiway (1,460 meters). Up to 6 million passengers per year capacity is available. Air Macau (established 1994 with 51 percent ownership by China) and more than twenty other airlines provide international flights to and from Taiwan (Taipei and Kaohsiung), Singapore, Manila, Bangkok, Pyongyang, Anchorage, and Los Angeles; and domestic flights to and from Beijing, Chongqing, Fuzhou, Guilin, Haikou, Kunming, Nanjing, Ningbo, Sanya, Shanghai, Wuhan, Xiamen, Xi'an, and Zhengzhou. Around 200 flights are scheduled per week. Helicopter service is available every 30 minutes during the day from the Macau Maritime Terminal to central Hong Kong. Newspapers: There are seventeen newspapers (twelve in Chinese, five in Portuguese). Aomen Ribao (or Ou Mun Iat Pou, Macau Daily News) is sponsored by the Chinese Communist Party and has the largest circulation (100,000). Additionally, Chinese-language newspapers from Hong Kong are popular. Radios and Radio Stations: There are 250,000 radios; two twenty-hour FM radio stations, one Portuguese, one Chinese; and four AM stations. Hong Kong radio stations also are popular in Macau. Televisions and Television Channels: There are 70,300 television sets (1997 estimate); two television channels: one Portuguese and one Chinese. Television broadcasts also are received from Hong Kong and widely watched by Macau residents. Telephones: The number of telephone lines has been increasing since the mid-1990s. In 1997 there were 222,456 telephones; by 1999, 300,066 lines were in use. In 1999 there were 686 telephone lines per 1,000 people. Cellular-telephone-use statistics were not available. International access is via Hong Kong and China and via Intelsat (Indian Ocean). GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Colonial Administration: Before December 20, 1999, Macau was an enclave under Portuguese colonial administration recognized both by Portugal and China as Chinese territory. A governor, appointed by the president of Portugal, headed the cabinet, which included the governor and seven undersecretaries (economic coordination; transport and public works; public security; justice; communications, tourism, and culture; administration, education, and youth; and social affairs and budget). From April 1991 to December 1999, Governor General Vasco Joachim Rocha Vieira was head of Macau's government. A ten-member Consultative Committee represented the interests of the Chinese community and had five members appointed by governor and five elected indirectly. The colonial-era Legislative Assembly continues in the special administrative region. It was collocated with the executive branch at the Macau Government House (see Special Administrative Region, q.v.). Government House, Macau's colonial-era seat of government. With Macau's reversion to China, Government House is slated to become a historical site. Courtesy Catherina Pang, Hong Kong Collection, Library of Congress The legal system comprised the Courts of First Instance and higher courts; the General Court, with the authority of a judicial court and the power to pass sentence; and the Criminal Court, with control over preparatory instruction and preliminary inquiries. Appeals on decisions were heard by Macau's Supreme Court, which was established in 1992 with the power of final adjudication and the authority to decide in matters of administrative, fiscal, and customs law. Special Administrative Region: In accordance with Article 31 of the Constitution of the People's Republic China, Macau has special administrative region status, which provides constitutional guarantees for implementing the policy of "one country, two systems" and the constitutional basis for enacting the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region (see Legal System). Although geographically part of Guangdong Province, the Macau Special Administrative Region is directly under the authority of the central government of China in Beijing, which controls the foreign affairs and defense of Macau but otherwise grants the region "a high degree of authority." The Basic Law took force on December 20, 1999, and is to remain in effect for fifty years (that is, until 2049). In May 1999, banker Edmund Ho Hau-wah was elected by the 200-member Chief Executive Selection Committee as the first chief executive of the Macau Special Administrative Region. Ho, born in Macau in 1955, was the first Chinese person to govern the region since the 1550s. Prior to December 20, 1999, Ho nominated major officials in the new government and carried out other transfer tasks. The executive branch of the Macau government has the following cabinet departments, each headed by a secretary: Administration and Justice, Economic and Financial Affairs, Security, Social Affairs and Culture, and Transport and Public Works. There also are two commissions, Against Corruption and Audit, and a chief public prosecutor. Upon Macau's reversion to China, the executive offices were moved from Macau Government House temporarily to the Banco Tai Fung. The unicameral twenty-three-member Macau Legislative Assembly continues from the colonial-era administration. It has seven members who were appointed by the last Portuguese governor and eight members who were directly elected and eight members who were indirectly elected to four-year terms in September 1996. The next election is scheduled for September 2000. The Legislative Assembly is chaired by its president, industrialist Susana Chou, who is assisted by the vice president, lawyer Lau Cheok Va. It was relocated to a new building on Rua de Xangai, separate from the executive offices, in December 1999. The twenty-three-member assembly consists of eight members from direct elections, eight members from indirect elections, and seven members as appointed by the chief executive. With the exception of the current Legislative Assembly inaugurated on December 20, 1999, and whose members completed terms begun under the Portuguese administration, terms are for four years, with annual sessions running from October 15 to August 16. Standing committees perform the following functions: examination and issuance of reports and statements on projects and proposals of law, on resolutions and deliberations, and on proposals of alteration presented to the Legislative Assembly; examination of petitions submitted to the Legislative Assembly; voting on issues as approved in general by the Legislative Assembly General Meeting; and answering questions raised by the president or the General Meeting. There also are two urban councils that have carried over from the colonial administration. One represents the Macau Peninsula and one represents Taipa and Coloane. Mayors were nominated by the Portugese governor and are answerable to their respective executive committee and municipal assembly Macau's seven deputies to the National People's Congress (NPC) are selected by an electoral conference; they attended their first session of the NPC in Beijing in March 2000. Previously, in December 1999, the NPC Standing Committee approved the membership of the NPC Committee for the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region, chaired by NPC Vice Chairman Qiao Xiaoyang, for a five-year term. Half of the ten members are from Macau, the others from mainland China. Macau also has representation on the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. Political Parties: Macau has no formal political parties. However, key groups representing the interests of business, labor, and social welfare are important. Those that participated in the September 1996 Legislative Assembly elections, the last to be held before Macau returned to China's sovereignty, were: União Promotora para o Progresso (UNIPRO, Union for Promoting Progress), Associação Promotora para a Economia de Macau (APPEM, Association for Promoting the Economy of Macau), União para o Desenvolvimento (UPD, Union for Development), Associação de Novo Macau Democrático (ANMD, New Democratic Macau Association), Convergência para o Desenvolvimento (CODEM, Convergence for Development), União Geral para o Desenvolvimento de Macau (UDM, General Union for the Development of Macau), Associação de Amizade (AMI, Friendship Association), Aliança para o Desenvolvimento da Economia (ADE, Alliance for the Development of the Economy), Associação dos Empregados e Assalariados (AEA, Employees and Wage-Earners Association), and Associação pela Democracia e Bem-Estar Social de Macau (ADBSM, Association for the Democracy and Social Well-Being of Macau). The APPEM won the most votes in the 1996 elections. Foreign Affairs: The central government in Beijing controls the foreign affairs of Macau. The Commission of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs opened its office in Macau on December 20, 1999. A central government agency, the commission interacts with the Macau government in matters of foreign policy. It also processes applications from foreign nations and international organizations wishing to establish consulates or representative offices in Macau. Macau also is authorized to handle some external affairs on its own. These affairs include economic and cultural relations and agreements it concludes with states, regions, and international organizations. In such matters, Macau functions under the name "Macao, China." Macau displays the flag and national emblem of the People's Republic of China but is also authorized to display its own regional flag and emblem. Taiwanese organizations in Macau are allowed to continue operations and are required to abide by the Basic Law. International Organizations: Macau belongs to the Customs Cooperation Council; the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (associate member); the International Maritime Organization; the International Criminal Police Organization (subbureau); the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization; the World Meteorological Organization; the World Tourism Organization(associate member); and the World Trade Organization. Legal System: Prior to December 20, 1999, the laws of Portugal and the Portuguese judicial system applied. On December 20, 1999, under the sovereignty of China, the Macau Special Administrative Region was initiated, and the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, adopted by the First Session of the Eighth National People's Congress (NPC), March 31, 1993, as constitutional law for Macau, took effect under China's "one country, two systems" policy. The Basic Law stipulates that Macau is an inalienable part of the People's Republic of China. The Basic Law has nine chapters, 145 articles, and three annexes that cover the relationship between the central government and Macau; the fundamental rights and duties of the residents; the political structure (chief executive, executive authorities, legislature, judiciary, district organizations, and public servants); the economy, cultural and social affairs; external affairs; and the amendment process. Pubic Holidays: January 1 (New Year's Day), variable January-February (Lunar New Year's Day and Third Day of Lunar New Year), April 4 (Qingming Festival), variable March-April (Good Friday and Holy Saturday), May 1 (Labor Day), variable May (Buddha's Birthday), June 6 (Tuen Ng Festival), variable September (day after Mid-Autumn Festival), October 1 (National Day), October 6 (Chueng Yeung Festival), November 2 (All Souls' Day), December 8 (Feast of the Immaculate Conception), December 20 (Macau Special Administrative Region Day), December 21 (Winter Solstice), December 24 (Christmas Eve), and December 25 (Christmas Day). DEFENSE AND INTERNAL SECURITY Colonial Administration: Portugal withdrew its armed forces in 1975, leaving a police force of 5,800 under the direct control of the governor. Security was the responsibility of a civilian undersecretary for public security. The police were organized into enforcement, investigation, customs, and marine branches. People's Liberation Army: Since December 20, 1999, the defense of Macau has been the responsibility of the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA), which stations up to 1,000 troops in the Macau Special Administrative Region. The garrison has its logistics base, medical care, and food supply in the Zhuhai Special Economic Zone, across the border from Macau. According to the Law on Stationing Troops in the Macau Special Administrative Region (or Macau Garrison Law, passed by the NPC Standing Committee on June 28, 1999), the mission of the PLA in Macau is to defend the special administrative region by "preventing and resisting aggression; safe-guarding the security [of Macau]; undertaking defence services; managing military facilities; and handling related foreign military affairs." The PLA can also be called upon by the chief executive to help maintain public order and assist with disaster relief efforts. The members of the garrison are mainly ground force troops. The Macau Garrison is under the command and control of the Central Military Commission, and its budget is administered by the central government in Beijing. A PLA major general heads the Macau Garrison. Police: On December 20, 1999, the various police force branches, with the exception of the customs police, who were reassigned to the Financial Service Department, were merged into a single force--the Macau Security Force--under the supervision of the secretary of security. At the time of the return of Macau to China's sovereignty, plans were in place to modernize the police force with the goal of better positioning the force to combat organized crime and to stop illegal immigration. Organized Crime: Increasing crime in the 1990s was attributed to organized crime organizations (triads). One major organization, the 14K Triad, was reported in the mid-1990s to have had a complex and secretive financial and communications network and some 10,000 members. The gambling industry is the major focus of organized crime in Macau. When the 14K Triad's attempt to ally with other triads failed in 1996, gangland violence broke out. With the integration of Macau into China, greater attention has been paid to internal security matters, and the Guangdong Province Public Security Bureau and Macau Security Force began cooperating in a crackdown on organized crime. Within Macau, an organized crime team, comprising personnel from the Security Department and the Justice Department, work on the crackdown on and prosecution of major crime cases. Chief Executive Edmund Ho Hau-wah has declared his commitment to "exhaust all possible legal means to smash criminal gangs." **************** Macau -- Bibliography Boxer, C.R., ed. and trans. Seventeenth Century Macau in Contemporary Documents and Illustrations. Hong Kong: Heinemann (Asia), 1984. China. Embassy (Washington). "China to Resume the Exercise of Sovereignty over Macao on December 20, 1999, " Newsletter, Embassy of the People's Republic of China, No. 99-24, December 13, 1999, 1-7. China. State Statistical Bureau. Zhongguo tongji nianjian, 1997 (Statistical Yearbook of China, 1997). Beijing: September 1997. Edmonds, Richard Louis. "Macau and Greater China." Pages 226-54 in David Shambaugh, ed., Greater China: The Next Superpower? Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. Edmonds, Richard Louis, and Herbert Yee. "Macau: From Portuguese Autonomous Territory to Chinese Special Administrative Region," China Quarterly (London), No. 160, December 1999, 801-817. Fei Chengkang. Macao: 400 Years. Trans. Wang Yintong. Shanghai: Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, 1996. Flores, Jorge. "The History of Macao During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: Open Questions and Possible Queries," Review of Culture (Macau), No. 19, 2d Series, 1994, 11-16. Guillén Nuñez, César. Macao Streets. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press (China), 1999. Gunn, Geoffrey C. Encountering Macau: A Portuguese City-State on the Periphery of China, 1557-1999. Transitions: Asia and Asian America Series. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1996. Haberzettl, Peter, and Roderich Ptak. Macau: Geographie, Geschichte, Wirtschaft und Kultur. South China and Maritime Asia, 3. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1995. Hing, Lo Shiu. Political Development in Macau. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1995. Li Fugen, "Macao: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow," China Today [Beijing], 48, No. 12, December 1999, 32-35. Liao, Darlene. "Macao Aims for a Turnaround," China Business Review, 26, No. 4, July-August 1999, 20-23. "Macau." Pages 152-55 in Asia 2000 Yearbook: A Review of the Events of 1999. 41st ed. Hong Kong: Far Eastern Economic Review, December 1999. "Macau." Pages 1010-19 in The Europa World Year Book, 2000,1. 41st ed. London: Europa, 2000. Macau Economic Services. Research and Electronic Data Processing Department. Macau Economy: Selected Economic and Financial Indicators. Macau: July 11, 2000. McGivering, Jill. Macao Remembers. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press (China), 1999. Porter, Jonathan. Macau, The Imaginary City: Culture and Society, 1557 to the Present. New Perspectives in Asian Studies. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2000. Roberts, Elfed Vaughan, Sum Ngai Ling, and Peter Bradshaw. Historical Dictionary of Hong Kong and Macau. Asian Historical Dictionaries, No. 10. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1992. Santos, Isaú. "Sino-Portuguese Relations via Macau in the 16th and 17th Centuries," Review of Culture (Macau), Nos. 7-8, October-March 1998-89, 3-11. Shipp, Steve. Macau, China: A Political History of the Portuguese Colony's Transition to Chinese Rule. Jefferson, North Carolina: MacFarland, 1997. Teixeira, Manuel. "The Macanese," Review of Culture (Macau), No. 20, 2d Series, 1994, 85-129. United States. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook, 1998. Washington: 1998. World Radio TV Handbook, 52. Ed., Andrew G. Sennitt. Amsterdam: Billboard, 1998. (The following web sites were used in the preparation of this appendix: http://www.macau.gov.mo/, the official web site of the Macau Special Administrative Region, which includes the Basic Law of Macau and other relevant statutes, and facts and figures about Macau; and http://www.economia.gov.mo, a government site that provides selected economic and financial indicators. Various issues of the following publications also were used: Asiaweek [Hong Kong], 1996-2000; China Daily [Beijing], 1996-2000; China Today [Beijing], 1999; the Economist Intelligence Unit's Country Report: Hong Kong, Macau [Hong Kong], 1996-99; and Far Eastern Economic Review [Hong Kong], 1995-99.)

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